A dynamic model of the spatial spread of an infectious disease: the case of fox rabies in Illinois

A spatially explicit computer model is developed to examine the dynamic spread of fox rabies across the state of Illinois and to evaluate possible disease control strategies. The ultimate concern is that the disease will spread from foxes to humans through the pet population. Modeling the population dynamics of rabies in foxes requires comprehensive ecological and biological knowledge of the fox and pathogenesis of the rabies virus. Variables considered including population densities, fox biology, home ranges, dispersal rates, contact rates, and incubation periods, can greatly effect the spread of disease. Accurate reporting of these variables is paramount for realistic construction of a spatial model. The spatial modeling technique utilized is a grid-based approach that combines the relevant geographic condition of the Illinois landscape (typically described in a georeferenced database system) with a nonlinear dynamic model of the phenomena of interest in each cell, interactively connected to the other appropriate cells (usually adjacent ones). The resulting spatial model graphically links data obtained from previous models, fox biology, rabies information and landscape parameters using various hierarchical scales and makes it possible to follow the emergent patterns and facilitates experimental stimulus/result data collection techniques. Results of the model indicate that the disease would likely spread among the native healthy fox population from East to West and would occur in epidemiological waves radiating from the point of introduction; becoming endemic across the State in about 15 years. Findings also include the realization that while current hunting pressures can potentially wipe out the fox in the State, some level of hunting pressure can be effectively utilized to help control the disease. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Consideration of scales in offshore wind environmental impact assessments

Quality of environmental impact assessments (EIAs) has been criticized, in part due to a lack of accounting in these tools for differing spatial and temporal scales inherent in ecological data. In the United States, leases of outer continental shelf blocks for offshore wind projects and their construction and operation plans require EIAs in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 and the 1978 Council on Environmental Quality Regulations for Implementing the Procedural Provisions of the National Environmental Policy Act. This study evaluated consideration of spatiotemporal scales of stressors, receptors (specifically cetaceans), and effects in eight federal offshore wind energy EIAs against 26 criteria extracted from federal regulations. The criteria analysis determined that EIAs do not consistently or comprehensively address spatiotemporal scales with respect to federal requirements. Deficiencies in addressing spatiotemporal scales may result from imprecise regulations, intent to simplify encyclopedic documents, or lack of data resulting in incomplete assessments, inappropriate mitigation actions, and projects delays. Recommendations to improve compliance with federal regulations include making federal guidance binding, focusing on non-trivial impacts of species, tiering information, and incorporating outcomes of marine spatial planning.     

Monitoring and estimating scale-dependent hierarchical relationships between Sicyopterus japonicus density and stream habitat features in different seasons in northern Taiwan

Biological and physical processes operate collaboratively through spatial or temporal scales to form ecological patterns, which are considered as a key element for understanding the natural liens within an ecosystem. Given the importance of scaling in ecological inference, this study elucidates how physical and biological variables under or within scales interact with each other. Density of Sicyopterus japonicus and environmental variables are examined and quantified at 70 stream sections distributed among 14 reaches in the Datuan stream catchment of northern Taiwan during the fall and winter of 2007, as well as the spring and summer of 2008. Hierarchical linear regression analysis indicates that S. japonicus density and habitat features are related on two levels, i.e., sections within reaches and reaches within streams throughout the year. Moreover, parameter uncertainty is represented by the confidence interval, which is calculated by the variance-covariance matrix of hierarchical linear model (HLM) parameters. According to HLM results, environmental variables at the section level (water depth and current velocity) and the reach level (stream width, water temperature, stream slope, soil erosion index) influence S. japonicus density. Although S. japonicus density varies significantly among reaches and sections within reaches, cross-level interaction may not always influence the distribution, processes and activities of S. japonicus throughout the year. The HLMs of S. japonicus density associated with stream features describe thoroughly multiple processes and the activities of S. japonicus across scales and within scales during different seasons. The annual HLM results represent the overall biological and physical patterns of the Datuan stream annually, explaining why they do not reflect seasonal associations or explain S. japonicus-related activities and environmental features of the stream.     

Estimation of nested spatial patterns and seasonal variation in the longitudinal distribution of Sicyopterus japonicus in the Datuan Stream, Taiwan by using geostatistical methods

This study attempts to determine the scale-dependent hierarchical spatial variation and longitudinal distributions of Sicyopterus japonicus year round. The distribution of S. japonicus in the Datuan Stream in northern Taiwan was surveyed during the fall and winter 2007, as well as the spring and summer of 2008. The spatial structure of S. japonicus density was modeled using geostatistics. The longitudinal distributions of S. japonicus density were then estimated using kriging and hydrology distance with nested variogram models. Variography results indicate that nested variogram models could reflect the hierarchical structure in the spatial variation of seasonal S. japonicus density, with the small, median, and large ranges representing three nested scales. Models for the four seasons were consistent in that they shared the same shape of variogram models with various ranges and sill values. This model shape consistency implies stationary spatial correlations in the longitudinal fish distribution across the four seasons. The Kriging geostatistical method based on the multiple scales nested variogram models also provided robust estimates of S. japonicus densities at unsampled sections. We conclude that S. japonicus densities exhibit hierarchical patterns and variation in the four seasons along the study stream. Geostatistical methods with a nested variograms and hydrological distance are a highly effective means of delineating the hierarchical structure in longitudinal patterns of S. japonicus density in each season, providing estimates of the S. japonicus density for hierarchically structured spatial distributions and expanding knowledge of S. japonicus beyond the limits imposed by spatial and temporal scales.     

Ecological mapping: A framework for delimiting forest management units

Ecological mapping attempts to objectively and spatially delimit and represent the natural organization and structure of the landscape. It offers nested levels of resolution, based upon a regionalization process, and provides an ecological basis for planning activities that may impact upon the environment.The essential principles of ecological mapping, as applied by the Quebec Ministry of Environment and Wildlife, are summarized. A methodological mapping approach is proposed for the determination of significant land portions for forest management using an ecological map at a scale of 1:50 000. At this scale, two nested levels of perception are expressed: 1) the topographic complex, and 2) the topographic entity. The topographic entity can be further subdivided into working units based upon operational criteria oriented to forest management. Within each nested level from topographic complex to working unit, there is a corresponding increase in the amount of detailed information available. Ecological mapping undertaken at 1:50 000 scale can provide a reliable and robust tool for planning forest management activities. In most cases, major ecological variations can be expressed and mapped at this scale; however, a greater degree of generalization must be accepted in the planning process when working at this scale rather than at larger scales.     

Integrated response plot designs for indicators of desertification

The improvement of land management practices on lands susceptible to desertification requires information on the status and condition of the existing resources as well as any change occurring in the resource condition over time. The Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP) of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has developed a statistical survey design for monitoring the condition of ecological resources on large spatial scales. EMAP-Rangelands used a uniformity sampling study in 1993 to evaluate response plot designs for three categories of indicators (soils, vegetation, and spectral reflectance) to be used for monitoring ecological condition of a site. The response plot design study was developed to integrate on-site measurements for the three indicator categories. The study was conducted on the Colorado Plateau in southern Utah in three rangeland resource classes (grassland, desertscrub, and conifer woodland) of differing productivity levels in an attempt to develop a common plot design for all three resource classes. Basic measurement units were developed to facilitate integration of data collection. Preliminary spatial analysis of the sampling study found considerable differences in variation patterns among the study sites and measurement categories for the indicator classes used by EMAP-Rangelands. Evidence of substantial trends in the indicator measurements on monitoring sites relative to regional trends leads to the conclusion that nonstationary spatial models for biological processes on a monitoring site may be needed to fulfill the requirements for developing plot designs and indicator criteria.The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, through the Office of Research and Development, funded the research described here. This paper has been subjected to the Agency's peer and administrative review and has been approved as an EPA publication. The U.S. Government has the right to retain a nonexclusive, royalty-free license in and to any copyright covering this article.     

Artificial Sampling Units: A Tool for Increasing the Sensitivity of Tests for Impact in Soft Sediments

The distribution of benthic organisms in soft sediments is patchy in time and space on many scales. Such variability makes assessment of ecological impacts difficult. Sediment-related variables, such as grain-size and organic content, which can affect colonization by infauna, vary over similar scales. Variations in characteristics of the sediment may contribute to spatial variability in infaunal assemblages, making it difficult to detect the putative impacts of disturbances, such as the production of boat-generated waves (wash), on these organisms. Here, the hypothesis that infaunal assemblages colonizing containers of homogeneous sedimentwould be less spatially variable than those colonizing natural sediment was tested. Containers were deployed at mudflats differing in exposure to wash. If wash does affect colonization, a reduction in variability among sites of similar exposure should enable stronger differences to be seen between wash and no-wash zones. Assemblages colonizing homogeneous sediment were less variable than those colonizing site-specific sediment. No difference in colonization was, however, seen between places differing in their exposure to wash. Nevertheless, this method is of use in the assessment of ecological impacts in sedimentary environments, where it is difficult to detect putative impacts above the great natural variability in assemblages.     

Structural characteristics of post-wildfire and clearcut landscapes

A continuing discussion in the field of ecology and forest management concerns the implications of clearcutting as a functional replacement for wildfire in disturbance-driven ecosystems. At the landscape level, spatial pattern has been shown to influence many ecologically important processes. Satellite imagery allows the evaluation of structural patterns created by alternative forest management activities at broad scales. In Northwestern Ontario, both clearcutting and wildfire have occurred over large contiguous areas. Spatial characteristics including composition, patch size, patch shape, and interspersion were calculated from classified Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data at two thematic scales and used to compare post-wildfire and clearcut landscapes. Patches in the clearcut landscape were found to be larger in size, and had a more irregular shape than those in the wildfire landscape. Differences in landscape structure were much more pronounced at broad scales than at fine thematic scales.     

Seagrass (Posidonia oceanica) monitoring in western Mediterranean: implications for management and conservation

The seagrass Posidonia oceanica is extensively monitored in Mediterranean coastal waters and is an ideal candidate for an eco-regional assessment of the coastal ecosystem. The aim of this study is to evaluate the potential of P. oceanica as eco-regional indicator for its assessment at the scale of Mediterranean basin. For this purpose, regional and national P. oceanica monitoring programmes are identified, and their data and metadata are collected and compared in terms of objectives, strategies, sampling designs and sampling methods. The analysis identifies a number of issues concerning data quality, reliability and comparability. In particular, the adoption of different sampling designs and methods may introduce relevant errors when comparing data. The results of this study stress the necessity of carefully planning monitoring programmes. Moreover, it highlights that the adoption of a number of common tools would facilitate all Mediterranean monitoring activities and allows an optimisation of management efforts at an eco-regional scale.     

Urban gray vs. urban green vs. soil protection — Development of a systemic solution to soil sealing management on the example of Germany

Managing urban soil sealing is a difficult venture due to its spatial heterogeneity and embedding in a socio-ecological system. A systemic solution is needed to tackle its spatial, ecological and social sub-systems. This study develops a guideline for urban actors to find a systemic solution to soil sealing management based on two case studies in Germany: Munich and Leipzig. Legal-planning, informal-planning, economic-fiscal, co-operative and informational responses were evaluated by indicators to proof which strategy considers the spatial complexity of urban soil sealing (systemic spatial efficiency) and, while considering spatial complexity, to assess what the key management areas for action are to reduce the ecological impacts by urban soil sealing (ecological impact efficiency) and to support an efficient implementation by urban actors (social implementation efficiency). Results suggest framing the systemic solution to soil sealing management through a cross-scale, legal-planning development strategy embedded in higher European policies. Within the socio-ecological system, the key management area for action should focus on the protection of green infrastructure being of high value for actors from the European to local scales. Further efforts are necessary to establish a systemic monitoring concept to optimize socio-ecological benefits and avoid trade-offs such as between urban infill development and urban green protection. This place-based study can be regarded as a stepping stone on how to develop systemic strategies by considering different spatial sub-targets and socio-ecological systems.     

Effects of the Conservation Reserve Program on northern bobwhite and grassland birds

The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) has converted just over 36 million acres of cropland into potential wildlife habitat, primarily grassland. Thus, the CRP should benefit grassland songbirds, a group of species that is declining across the United States and is of conservation concern. Additionally, the CRP is an important part of multi-agency, regional efforts to restore northern bobwhite populations. However, comprehensive assessments of the wildlife benefits of CRP at regional scales are lacking. We used Breeding Bird Survey and National Resources Inventory data to assess the potential for the CRP to benefit northern bobwhite and other grassland birds with overlapping ranges and similar habitat associations. We built regression models for 15 species in seven different ecological regions. Forty-nine of 108 total models contained significant CRP effects (P < 0.05), and 48 of the 49 contained positive effects. Responses to CRP varied across ecological regions. Only eastern meadowlark was positively-related to CRP in all the ecological regions, and western meadowlark was the only species never related to CRP. CRP was a strong predictor of bird abundance compared to other land cover types. The potential for CRP habitat as a regional conservation tool to benefit declining grassland bird populations should continue to be assessed at a variety of spatial scales. We caution that bird-CRP relations varied from region to region and among species. Because the NRI provides relatively coarse resolution information on CRP, more detailed information about CRP habitats (spatial arrangement, age of the habitat (time since planting), specific conservation practices used) should be included in future assessments to fully understand where and to what extent CRP can benefit grassland birds.     

A hierarchical approach for desertification assessment

Environmental systems are complex and multi-scaled open systems. To understand land degradation, one has to consider the interactions between landscape patterns and environmental processes at different scales. Patterns and processes in the landscape are perceived to be organized in nested hierarchical structures. To study land degradation in this context, a coupled top-bottom/bottom-up approach was developed. The top-bottom landscape analysis is aimed at identifying landscape systems at different scales. The bottom-up analysis focuses on system dynamics at finer scales. Applied in a study in central Spain, the approach is aimed at understanding the functional differences between three types of degraded seminatural slopes at different scales. Six levels of organization were distinguished: ped-level, terracette-level, hummock-level, slope part-level, slope level, and watershed level. Properties that characterize these levels were selected for different disciplines. The bottom-up analysis focused on water movement at different spatial scales. Successfully applying this approach revealed the importance for land degradation of the close linkage between spatial patterns and hydrological processes at different spatial scales. Identifying constraining and dynamic indicators related to water conservation at different scales can be useful for assessing desertification.     

A method to the impact assessment of the returning grazing land to grassland project on regional eco-environmental vulnerability

The Chinese government has conducted the Returning Grazing Land to Grassland Project (RGLGP) across large portions of grasslands from western China since 2003. In order to explore and understand the impact in the grassland's eco-environment during the RGLGP, we utilized Projection Pursuit Model (PPM) and Geographic Information System (GIS) to develop a spatial assessment model to examine the ecological vulnerability of the grassland. Our results include five indications: (1) it is practical to apply the spatial PPM on ecological vulnerability assessment for the grassland. This methodology avoids creating an artificial hypothesis, thereby providing objective results that successfully execute a multi-index assessment process and analysis under non-linear systems in eco-environments; (2) the spatial PPM is not only capable of evaluating regional eco-environmental vulnerability in a quantitative way, but also can quantitatively demonstrate the degree of effect in each evaluation index for regional eco-environmental vulnerability; (3) the eco-environment of the Xianshui River Basin falls into the medium range level. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and land use cover and change (LUCC) crucially influence the Xianshui River Basin's eco-environmental vulnerability. Generally, in the Xianshui River Basin, regional eco-environmental conditions improved during 2000 and 2010. The RGLGP positively affected NDVI and LUCC structure, thereby promoting the enhancement of the regional eco-environment; (4) the Xianshui River Basin divides its ecological vulnerability across different levels; therefore our study investigates three ecological regions and proposes specific suggestions for each in order to assist in eco-environmental protection and rehabilitation; and lastly that (5) the spatial PPM established by this study has the potential to be applied on all types of grassland eco-environmental vulnerability assessments under the RGLGP and under the similar conditions in the Returning Agriculture Land to Forest Project (RALFP). However, when establishing an eco-environmental vulnerability assessment model, it is necessary to choose suitable evaluation indexes in accordance with regional eco-environmental characteristics.     

Multi-scale ecosystem analysis

As a precursor to management, ecosystems of different sizes need to be mapped at different scales. The key to developing criteria for subdividing land into ecosystems is understanding the factors that control ecosystem size at various scales in a hierarchy. The relationships between an ecosystem at one scale and ecosystems at smaller or larger scales must be examined, in order to predict the effects of management. Multi-scale mapping is helpful in analyzing relationships of this type.     

A new multiscale approach for monitoring vegetation using remote sensing-based indicators in laboratory, field, and landscape

Remote sensing is an important tool for studying patterns in surface processes on different spatiotemporal scales. However, differences in the spatiospectral and temporal resolution of remote sensing data as well as sensor-specific surveying characteristics very often hinder comparative analyses and effective up- and downscaling analyses. This paper presents a new methodical framework for combining hyperspectral remote sensing data on different spatial and temporal scales. We demonstrate the potential of using the “One Sensor at Different Scales” (OSADIS) approach for the laboratory (plot), field (local), and landscape (regional) scales. By implementing the OSADIS approach, we are able (1) to develop suitable stress-controlled vegetation indices for selected variables such as the Leaf Area Index (LAI), chlorophyll, photosynthesis, water content, nutrient content, etc. over a whole vegetation period. Focused laboratory monitoring can help to document additive and counteractive factors and processes of the vegetation and to correctly interpret their spectral response; (2) to transfer the models obtained to the landscape level; (3) to record imaging hyperspectral information on different spatial scales, achieving a true comparison of the structure and process results; (4) to minimize existing errors from geometrical, spectral, and temporal effects due to sensor- and time-specific differences; and (5) to carry out a realistic top- and downscaling by determining scale-dependent correction factors and transfer functions. The first results of OSADIS experiments are provided by controlled whole vegetation experiments on barley under water stress on the plot scale to model LAI using the vegetation indices Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and green NDVI (GNDVI). The regression model ascertained from imaging hyperspectral AISA-EAGLE/HAWK (DUAL) data was used to model LAI. This was done by using the vegetation index GNDVI with an R ² of 0.83, which was transferred to airborne hyperspectral data on the local and regional scales. For this purpose, hyperspectral imagery was collected at three altitudes over a land cover gradient of 25 km within a timeframe of a few minutes, yielding a spatial resolution from 1 to 3 m. For all recorded spatial scales, both the LAI and the NDVI were determined. The spatial properties of LAI and NDVI of all recorded hyperspectral images were compared using semivariance metrics derived from the variogram. The first results show spatial differences in the heterogeneity of LAI and NDVI from 1 to 3 m with the recorded hyperspectral data. That means that differently recorded data on different scales might not sufficiently maintain the spatial properties of high spatial resolution hyperspectral images.     

Criteria to Assess and Select Sites for Long-Term Avian Monitoring in an Urbanizing Landscape

A methodology was developed to prioritize the suitability of sites for long-term monitoring of avian populations, including vulnerable species, both to enhance assessment of changes in ecological resources and to facilitate land-use planning at the regional scale. This paper argues that a successful monitoring program begins with a site prioritization procedure that integrates scores based on spatial controls with ecological and socio-economic indicators, particularly those dependent on community involvement. The evaluation strategy in this study combines 1) spatial controls such as land ownership and accessibility, with 2) biological and habitat indicators such as vulnerable species and habitat connectivity, and 3) community and agency variables such as volunteer commitment and agency priorities. In total, a set of ten indicators was identified. This strategy was applied to predominantly agricultural landscapes, which are experiencing increasing human pressures, in three sub-watersheds of the Credit River, Southern Ontario. Specifically, bird populations were recorded during the breeding seasons of 2000-2002 in nine land units or habitat types including marsh, deciduous forest, and grasslands as mapped by Credit Valley Conservation (CVC) following Ecological Land Classification (ELC) guidelines. CVC selected sites for long-term monitoring in 2002 and the relationships between the scored (or ranked) sites and the selected long-term monitoring sites are discussed.     

A Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis Model Based on ELECTRE TRI-C for Erosion Risk Assessment in Agricultural Areas

This paper deals with a real-world decision-aiding problem for zoning the risk of erosion, total suspended solids emissions, and ecological consequences of their transfers towards the streams. One of these consequences is the decrease of fishes into the streams in agricultural watersheds, because of the clogging of spawning areas. Given the multiple criteria nature of the problem, the originality of our research is to adapt a new decision-aiding sorting method, ELECTRE TRI-C, for identifying risk zones in rural areas, where measures must be taken. The developed model was applied in a small watershed (Low Normandy, France) where the objective was to assess the most appropriate intervention for protecting the reproduction habitat of the salmonid fishes. Agricultural parcels were evaluated on multiple criteria for grouping them into four risk categories, which are related to risk levels as well as priorities on the improvement works. The decision-aiding sorting model is co-constructed, within a constructive approach, through an interaction process between decision-aiding analysts, environmental experts, and local actors for improving transparency and communication on the results. This model is linked with a geographical information system (GIS) for assessing a set of criteria and the visualization of the farming parcels along with their type of intervention they should be submitted to best practices. The assignment results were validated by the environmental experts. These results have a strong impact on the agricultural practices of the farmers into the watersheds. The model proposed in this paper can be considered as a useful decision aid tool in any regions for implementing public agricultural and environmental policies for protecting the ecological areas.     

Spatial scales and probability based sampling in determining levels of benthic community degradation in the Chesapeake Bay

The extent of degradation of benthic communities of the Chesapeake Bay was determined by applying a previously developed benthic index of biotic integrity at three spatial scales. Allocation of sampling was probability-based allowing areal estimates of degradation with known confidence intervals. The three spatial scales were: (1) the tidal Chesapeake Bay; (2) the Elizabeth River watershed; and (3) two small tidal creeks within the Southern Branch of the Elizabeth River that are part of a sediment contaminant remediation effort. The areas covered varied from 10^–1 to 10⁴ km² and all were sampled in 1999. The Chesapeake Bay was divided into ten strata, the Elizabeth River into five strata and each of the two tidal creeks was a single stratum. The determination of the number and size of strata was based upon consideration of both managerially useful units for restoration and limitations of funding. Within each stratum 25 random locations were sampled for benthic community condition. In 1999 the percent of the benthos with poor benthic community condition for the entire Chesapeake Bay was 47% and varied from 20% at the mouth of the Bay to 72% in the Potomac River. The estimated area of benthos with poor benthic community condition for the Elizabeth River was 64% and varied from 52–92%. Both small tidal creeks had estimates of 76% of poor benthic community condition. These kinds of estimates allow environmental managers to better direct restoration efforts and evaluate progress towards restoration. Patterns of benthic community condition at smaller spatial scales may not be correctly inferred from larger spatial scales. Comparisons of patterns in benthic community condition across spatial scales, and between combinations of strata, must be cautiously interpreted.     

A process for selecting indicators for monitoring conditions of rangeland health

This paper reports on a process for selecting a suite of indicators that, in combination, can be useful in assessing the ecological conditions of rangelands. Conceptual models that depict the structural and functional properties of ecological processes were used to show the linkages between ecological components and their importance in assessing the status and trends of ecological resources on a regional scale. Selection criteria were developed so that relationships could be assessed at different spatial scales using ground and aerial measurements. Parameters including responsiveness and sensitivity to change, quality assurance and control, temporal and spatial variability, cost-effectiveness and statistical design played an important role in determining how indicators were selected. A total of ten indicator categories were selected by a committee of scientists for evaluation in the program. A subset that included soil properties, vegetation composition and abundance, and spectral properties was selected for evaluation in a pilot test conducted in 1992 in the Colorado Plateau region of the southwestern United States. This work is part of a major effort being undertaken by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and its collaborators to assess the condition of rangelands (primarily comprised of arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid ecosystems) along with seven other ecosystem groups (forests, agricultural lands, wetlands, surface waters, landscapes, estuaries and Great Lakes) as part of a national Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP). The indicator selection process reported upon was developed to support EMAP's goal of providing long-term, policy-relevant research focusing on evaluating the ecological condition (or health) of regional and national resources.     

The BIOTA Biodiversity Observatories in Africa—a standardized framework for large-scale environmental monitoring

The international, interdisciplinary biodiversity research project BIOTA AFRICA initiated a standardized biodiversity monitoring network along climatic gradients across the African continent. Due to an identified lack of adequate monitoring designs, BIOTA AFRICA developed and implemented the standardized BIOTA Biodiversity Observatories, that meet the following criteria (a) enable long-term monitoring of biodiversity, potential driving factors, and relevant indicators with adequate spatial and temporal resolution, (b) facilitate comparability of data generated within different ecosystems, (c) allow integration of many disciplines, (d) allow spatial up-scaling, and (e) be applicable within a network approach. A BIOTA Observatory encompasses an area of 1?km² and is subdivided into 100 1-ha plots. For meeting the needs of sampling of different organism groups, the hectare plot is again subdivided into standardized subplots, whose sizes follow a geometric series. To allow for different sampling intensities but at the same time to characterize the whole square kilometer, the number of hectare plots to be sampled depends on the requirements of the respective discipline. A hierarchical ranking of the hectare plots ensures that all disciplines monitor as many hectare plots jointly as possible. The BIOTA Observatory design assures repeated, multidisciplinary standardized inventories of biodiversity and its environmental drivers, including options for spatial up- and downscaling and different sampling intensities. BIOTA Observatories have been installed along climatic and landscape gradients in Morocco, West Africa, and southern Africa. In regions with varying land use, several BIOTA Observatories are situated close to each other to analyze management effects.