Ammonia volatilization from sows on grassland

According to regulations, sows with piglets on organic farms must graze on pastures. Volatilization of ammonia (NH₃) from urine patches may represent a significant source of nitrogen (N) loss from these farms. Inputs of N are low on organic farms and losses may reduce crop production. This study examined spatial variations in NH₃ volatilization using a movable dynamic chamber, and the pH and total ammoniacal nitrogen (TAN) content in the topsoil of pastures with grazing sows was measured during five periods between June 1998 and May 1999. Gross NH₃ volatilization from the pastures was also measured with an atmospheric mass balance technique during seven periods from September 1997 until June 1999. The dynamic chamber study showed a high variation in NH₃ volatilization because of the distribution of urine; losses were between 0 and 2.8 g NH₃–N m⁻² day⁻¹. Volatilization was highest near the feeding area and the huts, where the sows tended to urinate. Ammonia volatilization rate was linearly related to the product of NH₃ concentration in the boundary layer and wind speed. The NH₃ in the boundary layer was in equilibrium with NH₃ in soil solution. Gross NH₃ volatilization was in the range 0.07–2.1 kg NH₃–N ha⁻¹ day⁻¹ from a pasture with 24 sows ha⁻¹. Ammonia volatilization was related to the amount of feed given to the sows, incident solar radiation and air temperature during measuring periods, and also to temperature, incident solar radiation and rain 1–2 days before measurements. Annual ammonia loss was 4.8 kg NH₃–N sow⁻¹.     

Ammonia volatilization loss from surface applied livestock manure

Ammonia (NH₃) emission from livestock manures used in agriculture reduces N uptake by crops and negatively impacts air quality. This laboratory study was conducted to evaluate NH₃emission from different livestock manures applied to two soils: Candler fins sand (CFS; light-textured soil, pH 6.8 and field capacity soil water content of 70 g kg^{? 1}) from Lake Alfred, Florida and Ogeechee loamy sand (OLS; medium-textured soil, pH 5.2 and field capacity soil water content of 140 g kg^{? 1}) from Savannah, Georgia. Poultry litter (PL) collected from a poultry farm near Douglas, Georgia, and fresh solid separate of swine manure (SM) collected from a farm near Clinton, North Carolina were used. Each of the soil was weighed in 100 g sub samples and amended with either PL or SM at rates equivalent to either 0, 2.24, 5.60, 11.20, or 22.40 Mg ha^{? 1} in 1L Mason jars and incubated in the laboratory at field capacity soil water content for 19 days to monitor NH₃ volatilization. Results indicated a greater NH₃ loss from soils amended with SM compared to that with PL. The cumulative NH₃volatilization loss over 19 days ranged from 4 to 27% and 14 to 32% of total N applied as PL and SM, respectively. Volatilization of NH₃ was greater from light-textured CFS than that from medium-textured OLS. Volatilization loss increased with increasing rates of manure application. Ammonia volatilization was lower at night time than that during the day time. Differences in major factors such as soil water content, temperature, soil type and live stock manure type influenced the diurnal variation in volatilization loss of NH₃ from soils. A significant portion (> 50%) of cumulative NH₃ emission over 19 d occurred during the first 5–7 d following the application of livestock manures. Results of this study demonstrate that application of low rates of livestock manure (≤ 5.60 Mg ha^{? 1}) is recommended to minimize NH₃ emissions.     

Regional-specific emission inventory for NH3, N2O, and CH4 via animal farming in South, Southeast, and East Asia

Ammonia, nitrous oxide, and methane emission from animal farming of South, Southeast, and East Asia, in 2000, was estimated at about 4.7 Tg NH₃–N, 0.51 Tg N₂O–N, and 29.9 Tg CH₄, respectively, using the FAO database and countries’ statistic databases as activity data, and emission factors taking account of regional characteristics. Most of these atmospheric components, up to 60–80%, were produced in China and India. Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, which were large source countries next to China and India, contributed more than a few percent of total emission of each atmospheric component. The largest emission livestock were cattle whose contribution was considerably high in South, Southeast, and East Asia; more than one-fourth of ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions: more than half of methane emission. The other major livestock for nitrous oxide and ammonia emissions were pigs. For methane emission, buffaloes were second source livestock. To provide spatial distributions of these gases, the emissions of county and district level were allocated into each 0.5° grid by means of the weighting by high-resolution land cover datasets. The regions with considerable high emissions of all components were able to be found at the Ganges delta and the Yellow River basin. The spatial distributions for ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions were similar but had a substantial difference from methane distribution.     

Rate control of ammonia volatilization from rice paddies

As part of a research program aimed at improving the efficiency of fertilizer N in flooded rice, an assessment is being made of the losses of NH₃ by volatilization. A model was developed to analyze the influence of floodwater chemistry and meteorological conditions. The complicated process of ammonia transfer across the gas-liquid interface was described using this model in conjunction with current theories of chemical reaction kinetics, evaporation from natural waters and atmospheric boundary layers. The model was shown to approximate with fair accuracy a data set obtained in a laboratory wind-water tunnel, simulating rice paddy conditions.Results of the analysis show the rate of ammonia volatilization to increase with increasing ammoniacal-N concentrations and pH of the floodwater as well as wind velocity and temperature, while it decreased with increasing fetch. The effects of wind, temperature and pH on the rate of ammonia volatilization are of the same order of magnitude. Some practical implications of the results are discussed.     

Manure placement depth impacts on crop yields and N retained in soil

The objective of this study was to determine the impact of manure placement depth on crop yield and N retention in soil. Experimental treatments were deep manure injection (45 cm), shallow manure injection (15 cm), and conventional fertilizer-based management with at least three replications per site. Water infiltration, and changes in soil N and P amounts were measured for up to 30 months and crop yield monitored for three seasons following initial treatment. Deep and shallow manure injections differed in soil inorganic N distributions. For example, in the manure slot the spring following application, NO₃-N in the surface 60 cm was higher (p < .01) when injected 15 cm (21.4 μ g/g) into the soil than 45 cm (11.7 μ g/g), whereas NH₄-N had opposite results with shallow injection having less (p = 0.045) NH₄-N (102 μ g/g) than deep (133 μ g/g) injection. In the fall one year after the manure was applied, NO₃-N and NH₄-N were lower (p = 0.001) in the shallow injection than the deep injection. The net impact of manure placement on total N was that deep injection had 31, 59, and 44 more kg N ha^{? 1} than the shallow injection treatment 12, 18, and 30 months after application, respectively. Deep manure injection did not impact soybean (Glycine max L.) yield, however corn (Zea mays L.) yield increased if N was limiting. The higher corn yield in the deep injected treatment was attributed to increased N use efficiency. Higher inorganic N amounts in the deep injection treatment were attributed to reduced N losses through ammonia volatilization, leaching, or denitrification. Results suggest that deep manure placement in glacial till soil may be considered a technique to increase energy, N use efficiency, and maintain surface and ground water quality. However, this technique may not work in glacial outwash soils due to the inability to inject into a rocky subsurface.     

低温等离子体氧化氨气影响因素及动力学研究

采用电晕放电低温等离子体处理模拟氨气恶臭气体,考察了输入功率、初始浓度、气体湿度、停留时间等因素对降解效果和能量效率的影响,同时对反应过程进行了动力学研究。研究表明,输入功率以及停留时间对氨气降解的影响是积极的,但能量效率随着两者的增加先增大后减小。氨气的降解率随着初始浓度的增加而降低,而能量效率随着输入功率的增加而增加。氨气降解率和能量效率均随着气体湿度的增加而增加,当气体湿度为45%时达到最大值,然而随着气体湿度的进一步增加,其降解率和能量效率反而降低。反应尾气中臭氧浓度随着输入功率的增加而不断升高,而氨气的存在却使臭氧浓度有不同程度的降低。对电晕放电低温等离子体处理NH3的反应动力学进行了分析,得到NH3的反应速率常数为kNH3=0.0707 m3/(W·h)。     

Gaseous Ammonia Uptake in Compost Biofilters as Related to Compost Water Content

Abstract

Sewage sludge and yard waste compost were used as biofilter materials and tested with respect to their capacity for removing ammonia from air at different water contents. Ammonia removal was measured in biofilters containing compost wetted to different moisture contents ranging from air dry to field capacity (maximum water holding capacity). Filters were operated for 15 days and subsequently analyzed for NH₃/NH₄ ⁺, NO₂ ^-, and NO₃ ^-. The measured nitrogen species concentration profiles inside the filters were used to calculate ammonia removal rates. The results showed that ammonia removal is strongly dependent on the water content in the filter material. At gravimetric water contents below 0.25 g H₂O g solids^-1 for the yard waste compost and 0.5 g H₂O g solids^-1 ammonia removal rates were very low but increased rapidly above these values. The sewage sludge compost filters yielded more than twice the ammonia removal rate observed for yard waste compost likely because of a high initial concentration of nitrifying bacteria originating from the wastewater treatment process and a high air-water interphase surface area that facilitates effective ammonia dissolution and transport to the biofilm.     

Atmospheric gas and particle measurements at a rural northeastern U.S. site

Ammonia, nitric acid, sulfur dioxide and particles in two size ranges were collected at a rural site in northeastern U.S. in January–March 1984. Ammonia was collected with an oxalic acid coated denuder, all other components were collected on filters. The concentrations of ammonia ranged between 0.0 and 0.5 ppbv, nitric acid: 0.1 and 2.3 ppbv and sulfur dioxide: 1 and 52 ppbv. Ammonium and sulfate in the fine particles were highly correlated, the regression line indicated that the most abundant compound was ammonium sulphate. The content of free hydronium ions in the fine particles was well below the ammonium content. No correlation between NH₃ and NH⁺₄, HNO₃ and NO₃ SO₃ and SO⁻²₄ could be observed.     

Effects of field-applied composted cattle manure and chemical fertilizer on ammonia and particulate ammonium exchanges at an upland field

The present study aimed to investigate the NH₃ volatilization loss from field-applied compost and chemical fertilizer and evaluate the atmosphere–land exchange of NH₃ and particulate NH₄⁺ (pNH₄) at an upland field with volcanic ash soil (Andosol) in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Two-step basal fertilization was conducted on the bare soil surface. First, a moderately fermented compost of cattle manure was applied by surface incorporation (mixing depth, 0–15 cm) at a rate of 117 kg N ha⁻¹ as total nitrogen (T-N) corresponding to 9.9 kg N ha⁻¹ as ammoniacal nitrogen (NH₄–N). Twelve days later, a chemical fertilizer containing 10% (w/w) of NH₄–N as a mixture of ammonium sulfate and ammonium phosphates was applied by row placement (cover depth, 3 cm) at a rate of 100 kg N ha⁻¹ as NH₄–N. The study period was divided into the first-half, beginning after the compost application (CCM period), and the second-half, beginning after the chemical fertilizer application (CF period). The mean air concentrations of NH₃ and pNH₄ (1.5 m height) were 7.6 and 3.0 μg N m⁻³, respectively, in the CCM period; the values were 3.7 and 3.9 μg N m⁻³, respectively, in the CF period. The composition ratios of NH₃ to the sum of NH₃ and pNH₄ (1.5 m height) were 72% and 49% in the CCM and CF periods, respectively. The NH₃ volatilization loss from the compost was 0.8% of the applied T-N (or 9.3% of the applied NH₄–N) and that from the chemical fertilizer was near zero. Excluding the period immediately after the compost application, the upland field acted as a net sink for NH₃ and pNH₄.     

利用秸秆材料处理养殖废水过程中氮的转化与氨排放特征

养殖废水浓度过高,直接排入生态湿地容易造成植物死亡。因此,在养殖废水进入生态湿地之前,须进行前处理,降低其养分浓度,以确保生态湿地对养殖废水的处理效果。通过野外控制实验,研究了添加不同作物秸秆对养殖废水的处理效果,并考察了作物秸秆材料对氮的转化特征。结果表明：通过设置麦秸、玉米秆、稻草和对照4个实验组,在经过6个月的连续处理后,总氮出水浓度为359.8~614.0 mg·L⁻¹,去除率为30%~40%,氨氮出水浓度降至210.6~449.1 mg·L⁻¹,作物秸秆对高负荷养殖废水中氮的脱除效果显著;出水氨氮浓度在绿狐尾藻(Myriophyllum elatinoides)人工湿地要求的植物耐受限度内;不同形态氮浓度在基质系统处理前后的占比变化不大,主要以氨氮为主(平均为68.3%),其次为颗粒态氮(平均为22.0%),硝态氮占比极低(<1%);添加作物秸秆能降低养殖废水的氨挥发,生物基质消纳系统中以氨挥发形式损失的氮约占TN去除量的10%,明显低于自然条件下的损失率(60%)。以上研究结果对优化生态湿地处理高负荷畜禽养殖废水工艺具有参考价值和指导意义。     

页岩对污泥氨气挥发的抑制作用

氨气是城市污水污泥产生的恶臭气体之一,控制或抑制其产生是资源化利用甚至处置过程中至关重要的.通过改进氨气测量方法定量分析外掺页岩对污泥氨气挥发的抑制作用和机理,实验研究了页岩掺量、陈放形式以及环境温度对污泥氨气挥发浓度的影响.结果表明,外掺页岩对污泥氨气挥发具有明显的抑制作用,随温度升高、陈放时间延长抑制效果有所减弱但仍具有明显作用;页岩对污泥氨气挥发的抑制作用主要为对氨气的吸附作用.     

Nitrogen nutrition in cotton and control strategies for greenhouse gas emissions: a review

Cotton (Gossypium hirustum L.) is grown globally as a major source of natural fiber. Nitrogen (N) management is cumbersome in cotton production systems; it has more impacts on yield, maturity, and lint quality of a cotton crop than other primary plant nutrient. Application and production of N fertilizers consume large amounts of energy, and excess application can cause environmental concerns, i.e., nitrate in ground water, and the production of nitrous oxide a highly potent greenhouse gas (GHG) to the atmosphere, which is a global concern. Therefore, improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of cotton plant is critical in this context. Slow-release fertilizers (e.g., polymer-coated urea) have the potential to increase cotton yield and reduce environmental pollution due to more efficient use of nutrients. Limited literature is available on the mitigation of GHG emissions for cotton production. Therefore, this review focuses on the role of N fertilization, in cotton growth and GHG emission management strategies, and will assess, justify, and organize the researchable priorities. Nitrate and ammonium nitrogen are essential nutrients for successful crop production. Ammonia (NH₃) is a central intermediate in plant N metabolism. NH₃ is assimilated in cotton by the mediation of glutamine synthetase, glutamine (z-) oxoglutarate amino-transferase enzyme systems in two steps: the first step requires adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to add NH₃ to glutamate to form glutamine (Gln), and the second step transfers the NH₃ from glutamine (Gln) to α-ketoglutarate to form two glutamates. Once NH₃ has been incorporated into glutamate, it can be transferred to other carbon skeletons by various transaminases to form additional amino acids. The glutamate and glutamine formed can rapidly be used for the synthesis of low-molecular-weight organic N compounds (LMWONCs) such as amides, amino acids, ureides, amines, and peptides that are further synthesized into high-molecular-weight organic N compounds (HMWONCs) such as proteins and nucleic acids.     

Integrated analysis of the effects of agricultural management on nitrogen fluxes at landscape scale

The integrated modelling system INITIATOR was applied to a landscape in the northern part of the Netherlands to assess current nitrogen fluxes to air and water and the impact of various agricultural measures on these fluxes, using spatially explicit input data on animal numbers, land use, agricultural management, meteorology and soil. Average model results on NH₃ deposition and N concentrations in surface water appear to be comparable to observations, but the deviation can be large at local scale, despite the use of high resolution data. Evaluated measures include: air scrubbers reducing NH₃ emissions from poultry and pig housing systems, low protein feeding, reduced fertilizer amounts and low-emission stables for cattle. Low protein feeding and restrictive fertilizer application had the largest effect on both N inputs and N losses, resulting in N deposition reductions on Natura 2000 sites of 10% and 12%, respectively.     

Soil nitrogen transformations under elevated atmospheric CO₂ and O₃ during the soybean growing season

We investigated the influence of elevated CO₂ and O₃ on soil N cycling within the soybean growing season and across soil environments (i.e., rhizosphere and bulk soil) at the Soybean Free Air Concentration Enrichment (SoyFACE) experiment in Illinois, USA. Elevated O₃ decreased soil mineral N likely through a reduction in plant material input and increased denitrification, which was evidenced by the greater abundance of the denitrifier gene nosZ. Elevated CO₂ did not alter the parameters evaluated and both elevated CO₂ and O₃ showed no interactive effects on nitrifier and denitrifier abundance, nor on total and mineral N concentrations. These results indicate that elevated CO₂ may have limited effects on N transformations in soybean agroecosystems. However, elevated O₃ can lead to a decrease in soil N availability in both bulk and rhizosphere soils, and this likely also affects ecosystem productivity by reducing the mineralization rates of plant-derived residues.     

Estimation of NH3 bi-directional flux from managed agricultural soils

The Community Multi-Scale Air Quality model (CMAQ) is used to assess regional air quality conditions for a wide range of chemical species throughout the United States (U.S.). CMAQ representation of the regional nitrogen budget is limited by its treatment of ammonia (NH₃) soil emission from, and deposition to underlying surfaces as independent rather than tightly coupled processes, and by its reliance on soil emission estimates that do not respond to variable meteorology and ambient chemical conditions. The present study identifies an approach that addresses these limitations, lends itself to regional application, and will better position CMAQ to meet future assessment challenges. These goals were met through the integration of the resistance-based flux model of Nemitz et al. (2001) with elements of the United States Department of Agriculture EPIC (Environmental Policy Integrated Climate) model. Model integration centers on the estimation of ammonium and hydrogen ion concentrations in the soil required to estimate soil NH₃ flux. The EPIC model was calibrated using data collected during an intensive 2007 field study in Lillington, North Carolina. A simplified process model based on the nitrification portion of EPIC was developed and evaluated. It was then combined with the Nemitz et al. (2001) model and measurements of near-surface NH₃ concentrations to simulate soil NH₃ flux at the field site. Finally, the integrated flux (emission) results were scaled upward and compared to recent national ammonia emission inventory estimates. The integrated model results are shown to be more temporally resolved (daily), while maintaining good agreement with established soil emission estimates at longer time-scales (monthly). Although results are presented for a single field study, the process-based nature of this approach and NEI comparison suggest that inclusion of this flux model in a regional application should produce useful assessment results if nationally consistent sources of driving soil and agricultural management information are identified.     

Ammonia Flux from Open-Lot Dairies: Development of Measurement Methodology and Emission Factors

Abstract

Ammonia emissions contribute to the formation of secondary particulate matter (PM) and violations of the National Ambient Air Quality Standard. Ammonia mass concentration measurements were made in February 1999 upwind and downwind of an open-lot dairy in California, using a combination of active bubbler and passive filter samplers. Ammonia fluxes were calculated from concentrations measured at 2, 4, and 10 m above ground at three locations on the downwind edge of the dairy, using micrometeorological techniques. A new method was developed to interpolate fluxes at six additional locations from ammonia concentrations measured at a single height, providing measurements at sufficient spatial resolution along the downwind border of the dairy to account for the heterogeneity of the source. PM measured up- and downwind of the dairy demonstrated insignificant ammonium particle formation in the immediate vicinity of the dairy and negligible contribution of dissociated ammonium nitrate to measured ammonia concentrations. Ammonium nitrate concentrations measured downwind of the dairy ranged from 26 to 0.26 μg m^?3 and from 2 to 43% of total PM_2.5 mass concentrations. Measured ammonia fluxes showed that liquid manure retention ponds represented relatively minor sources of ammonia in winter on the dairy studied. Ammonia emission factors derived from the measurements ranged from 19 to 143 g head^?1 day^?1, showing an increase with warmer, drier weather and a decrease with increased relative humidity and lower temperatures.     

Comparison of models used for national agricultural ammonia emission inventories in Europe: Litter-based manure systems

Six N-flow models, used to calculate national ammonia (NH₃) emissions from agriculture in different European countries, were compared using standard data sets. Scenarios for litter-based systems were run separately for beef cattle and for broilers, with three different levels of model standardisation: (a) standardized inputs to all models (FF scenario); (b) standard N excretion, but national values for emission factors (EFs) (FN scenario); (c) national values for N excretion and EFs (NN scenario). Results of the FF scenario for beef cattle produced very similar estimates of total losses of total ammoniacal-N (TAN) (±6% of the mean total), but large differences in NH₃ emissions (±24% of the mean). These differences arose from the different approaches to TAN immobilization in litter, other N losses and mineralization in the models. As a result of those differences estimates of TAN available at spreading differed by a factor of almost 3. Results of the FF scenario for broilers produced a range of estimates of total changes in TAN (±9% of the mean total), and larger differences in the estimate of NH₃ emissions (±17% of the mean). The different approaches among the models to TAN immobilization, other N losses and mineralization, produced estimates of TAN available at spreading which differed by a factor of almost 1.7. The differences in estimates of NH₃ emissions decreased as estimates of immobilization and other N losses increased. Since immobilization and denitrification depend also on the C:N ratio in manure, there would be advantages to include C flows in mass-flow models. This would also provide an integrated model for the estimation of emissions of methane, non-methane VOCs and carbon dioxide. Estimation of these would also enable an estimate of mass loss, calculation of the N and TAN concentrations in litter-based manures and further validation of model outputs.     

The annual variation in stomatal ammonia compensation point of rye grass (Lolium perenne L.) leaves in an intensively managed grassland

The stomatal ammonia compensation point for ammonia (NH₃) of an intensively managed pasture of rye grass (Lolium perenne L.) was followed from mid January till November 2000. Leaf samples were taken every week. Simultaneously, the ambient NH₃ concentration was measured. Meteorological data (temperature, wind speed, rainfall and radiance) were collected from a nearby field station. The vacuum infiltration technique was used to isolate the apoplastic solution of the leaves. From the determined ammonium (NH₄⁺) concentration and pH in the apoplast, the gaseous NH₃ concentration inside the leaves was calculated, i.e. the so-called stomatal compensation point (χ_s).Temperature appeared to have a predominant effect on χ_s, partly by affecting the equilibrium between gaseous NH₃ inside the leaf and NH₃ dissolved in the apoplast and partly by affecting physiological processes influencing the NH₄⁺ concentration in the apoplast. Results of the present study suggest that these temperature effects were counteracting. On one hand temperature increase during early spring stimulated NH₃ volatilisation from the apoplast, on the other hand it led to a decline in apoplastic NH₄⁺ from 0.9 to 0.2 mM, thereby diminishing the emission potential of the leaf. The low NH₄⁺ concentrations during spring and summer coincided with a low total leaf N content (<3% dw). However, there was no clear relationship between these two variables. The total N content of the leaf tissue is therefore an inadequate parameter for prediction of the potential NH₃ emission from rye grass leaves. No annual trend was found for the apoplast pH. With a few exceptions, pH varied between 5.9 and 6.5 throughout the experimental period.The calculated values for χ_s varied between 0.5 and 4 μg m⁻³. The gaseous NH₃ concentrations inside the grass leaves were, with a few exceptions, always smaller than the measured ambient NH₃ concentrations. The present study indicates that under the current ambient NH₃ concentrations in the Netherlands, the grass canopy is unlikely to be a major source of NH₃ emission.     

Ammonia in the atmosphere: a review on emission sources, atmospheric chemistry and deposition on terrestrial bodies

Gaseous ammonia (NH₃) is the most abundant alkaline gas in the atmosphere. In addition, it is a major component of total reactive nitrogen. The largest source of NH₃ emissions is agriculture, including animal husbandry and NH₃-based fertilizer applications. Other sources of NH₃ include industrial processes, vehicular emissions and volatilization from soils and oceans. Recent studies have indicated that NH₃ emissions have been increasing over the last few decades on a global scale. This is a concern because NH₃ plays a significant role in the formation of atmospheric particulate matter, visibility degradation and atmospheric deposition of nitrogen to sensitive ecosystems. Thus, the increase in NH₃ emissions negatively influences environmental and public health as well as climate change. For these reasons, it is important to have a clear understanding of the sources, deposition and atmospheric behaviour of NH₃. Over the last two decades, a number of research papers have addressed pertinent issues related to NH₃ emissions into the atmosphere at global, regional and local scales. This review article integrates the knowledge available on atmospheric NH₃ from the literature in a systematic manner, describes the environmental implications of unabated NH₃ emissions and provides a scientific basis for developing effective control strategies for NH₃.