On the nature and role of protein constituents of the cuticle of crustaceans in relation to permeability of the cuticle

The chemical composition of the cuticle in regions which are permeable and impermeable to water in 4 crustaceans (Ocypode platytarsis, Metapenaeus monoceros, Emerita asiatica, Ligia exotica) was investigated, with special reference to the protein components. It was found that the cuticle which is permeable lacks the outer epicuticle or the entire epicuticle compared to the cuticle in the impermeable regions. The permeable cuticle is distinguished by the absence of a fuchsinophil protein, which is a precursor of tanning. Permeability of the cuticle is also associated with the presence of a simple protein, positive to the biuret test, and with a protein containing sulphydryl groups. It is considered that the cuticle protein may play a role in conferring permeability properties to the cuticle itself.     

Glycogen storage in relation to the moult cycle in the two crustaceansEmerita asiatica andLigia exotica

InEmerita asiatica, the quantitative fluctuations in the glycogen content of the hepatopancreas were markedly related to the moult cycle. The glycogen content of the hepatopancreas was maximum during premoult stages. It has been suggested that reserve glycogen, in addition to meeting general metabolic needs, may be especially involved in the genesis of the sugar precursors of chitin. The marked fall in the hepatopancreas glycogen values following moulting is probably due to its utilization in chitin synthesis during and immediately following moulting. InE. asiatica, the storage of glycogen was found to be meagre in muscles, and muscle glycogen had no bearing on chitin synthesis during moulting. InLigia exotica, glycogen is stored to a lesser extent than inE. asiatica, and was found in connective tissue and muscles. Significant fluctuations were noted in glycogen values correlated with the phases in the moult cycle when chitin synthesis took place. InL. exotica, the hepatopancreas does not serve as a storage depot for glycogen related to chitin synthesis.     

Nitrogen fixation in Oscillatoria (Trichodesmium) erythraea in relation to bundle formation and trichome differentiation

Planktonic populations of Oscillatoria (Trichodesmium) erythraea are abundant in the coastal waters of Tanzania (East Africa) during the northern monsoon period. The floating trichomes are either solitary or matted in bundles; the proportion of trichomes assembled in bundles can vary between 25 and 75%. Bundledness is inversely related to wind speed. Nitrogenase activity (acetylene reduction), which is directly related to bundledness, is high in the morning, declines by midday, and is measurable throughout the night. The trichomes display a clearly perceptible morphological differentiation into granulated and nongranulated regions, due apparently to the presence or absence of carboxysomes (polyhedral bodies) in the corresponding cells. Reducing conditions (tetrazolium reduction) are marked in the non-granulated region, particularly in cells which lie close to the granulated region of the trichome. Rod-shaped bacteria, which were invariably observed in the bundles, are more numerous around the non-granulated region of the trichome. Incorporation of ¹⁵N-nitrogen, following exposure to ¹⁵N₂, was significantly higher in the O. erythraea fraction than in any associated particulate fractions. The results vouch for nitrogen fixation by O. erythraea and are consistent with the concept of segregation of photosynthetic and nitrogen-fixing activities along trichomes.     

Organoiodine formation during humification in peatlands

Although two billion people in the world are suffering from iodine deficiency there is little information on the chemical fate of iodine in the terrestrial environment. Here we show that peatlands play a major role in terrestrial iodine cycling. Chemical data from two peat profiles from Patagonia, Chile imply that transformation of iodine from its inorganic form to organoiodine compounds during early humification in peatlands is a key process in storage of iodine in the terrestrial environment. Once bound in peat, iodine remains stable for thousands of years. In the earths peatlands, net accumulation of iodine since the last glacial period is estimated to be 12–36 teragrams (1 Tg=10¹² g). These data suggest that peatlands are a major reservoir of iodine in terrestrial ecosystems. Our novel model of iodine distribution in the terrestrial environment demonstrates the key role of peatlands in burial and reemission of organically bound iodine.     

鹿角杜鹃展叶期叶片发育与虫食动态

叶片虫食主要发生在展叶期间,虽然展叶期只是一个短暂的阶段,却可能是了解植食性昆虫和植物之间相互关系的关键.为了解展叶期叶片属性的变化及其与虫食的关系,研究通过野外观察和室内分析,测定福建梅花山亚热带常绿阔叶林中鹿角杜鹃(Rhododendron latoucheae)幼树展叶期间叶片属性(叶片氮、可溶性糖、叶绿素含量、含水量、单宁含量、硬度)和叶片虫食率的日变化动态,并分析它们之间的相互关系.结果表明,(1)叶片在爆芽27 d后完成展叶,平均展叶率14.06%,(2)可溶性糖、叶绿素和叶片硬度随叶片的展开上升缓慢,在展叶完成几天内后迅速上升;N含量、含水量和单宁含量在展叶期间含量较高,叶片展开后迅速下降.(3)虫食率随着叶片的发育逐渐上升,在第9天达到峰值(0.55%),并在接近展叶完成时迅速下降.(4)叶片虫食率同N含量、含水量、单宁含量正相关,而与叶绿素含量、可溶性糖含量、和叶片硬度负相关.     

Sedimentation of particulate matter during a phytoplankton spring bloom in relation to the hydrographical regime

Data presented and discussed here were collected continuously during April/May 1975 in the Bornholm Basin of the Baltic Sea. Sedimentation rates of particulate matter were recorded with 5 multisample sediment traps from different depths in the water column at 2 positions 170 km apart. Current meter data collected during the same period and depths indicated that the positions remained hydrographically distinct during the investigation. Particulate matter from the euphotic zone including diatom cells formed the bulk of the material collected by all traps. This flux of organic particles to the bottom was unimpeded by the strong density stratification present in the water column. The upper traps always collected less material than lower ones. This paradox has been ascribed to diminishing current speeds with depth, concomitant with an increase in sinking rates of phytoplankton and phytodetritus. Both factors influence the sampling efficiency of sediment traps, which are thought to have underestimated actual sedimentation rates here. A time lag of 2 to 3 weeks in bloom development seemed responsible for the characteristic differences between the two positions. The phase of major sedimentation at one position covered about 18 days, and a distinct sequence in the composition of the material collected by the 6 glasses of each trap indicated phases of a progressively deteriorating phytoplankton population in the water column contributing the particulate material. A total of 6.2 g C m^-2 in 34 days was recorded at this station. Apart from a trap situated in an oxygen deficient layer which collected 0.44 g C m^-2 of zooplankton corpses, zooplankton mortality was overestimated by the traps. Large-scale sedimencation of fresh organic matter produced by the spring bloom is probably a regular feature in areas with low over-wintering zooplankton populations and, as such, possibly has a direct stimulatory effect on growth and reproduction of the benthos.Contribution No. 185 of the Joint Research Programme 95, Kiel University.     

Sampling and analysis by GC/MS of the chitin synthesis inhibitors lufenuron and teflubenzuron in soil and soil invertebrates

A method for the measurement of benzoylphenyl ureas in soil, carabid beetles and earthworms was developed. These insecticides were transformed into their corresponding aniline derivatives in a hydrolytic step and subsequently measured by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.     

Blood sugar metabolism during moulting in the isopod crustacean Ligia exotica

Blood sugar metabolism of the isopod Ligia exotica Roux was studied in relation to chitin synthesis during the moult cycle. The blood sugars were found to occur free, as well as bound with blood proteins, during all moult stages, as in Emerita asiatica. The variety of free blood sugars is smaller in L. exotica; it comprises only glucose and glucose-6-phosphate. The protein-bound blood sugars are glucose and glucosamine. The blood-volume values do not differ markedly during the moult cycle. Estimations of blood sugars showed a marked rise of sugar levels in the blood during the premoult phase, and a subsequent fall during the freshmoult phase, when chitin is actively synthesised. The chitin values also showed a definite correlation with the blood-sugar values. The increased resorption of chitin during the premoult stage, and its liberation into the blood stream as glucosamine, is indicative of its reutilisation in chitin synthesis as in E. asiatica and the genus Cecropia. As more immediate precursors of chitin, such as uridine diphosphate and uridine diphophate acetylglucosamine compounds, were absent in the blood, a thorough biochemical study of the epidermis is suggested to locate the intermediate precursors of chitin which are possibly derived from blood sugars.     

Responses to sugars and their behavioural mechanisms in the starling (Sturnus vulgaris L.)

Summary The response of the starling to sugar solutions was investigated as this species, which eats sweet fruits, does not prefer sugar solutions according to the literature.In choice tests using two identical fountains, moderate preference for higher concentrations (0.5 M and 1 M) of glucose and fructose to water was demonstrated. The same concentrations of sucrose were rejected. Lower concentrations (0.25 M and less) of all three sugars were neither preferred nor rejected. In choice tests using two differently coloured fountains the subjects did not generally respond more sensitively to sugar solutions. In learning experiments with differently coloured fountains the starlings developed very marked preferences for 0.5 M glucose and 0.5 M fructose and a corresponding rejection of 0.5 M sucrose in the course of 1–2 days. In a learning experiment with dentical fountains they also developed a pronounced preference; the preference values obtained, however, are higher if secondary cues such as the colour of the fountain or its position are available. In short time tests immediate responses to sugar solutions could not be demonstrated.The rejection of sucrose is attributed to illness-induced aversion learning, the learned preference for glucose and fructose to the preference according to gain in energy per unit of time as postulated by the optimal foraging theory. Taste sensations play, if any, only a minor role. The learning mechanisms operating in the experiments could be employed by the starling for the selection of fruits.     

Body shape and burial behavior of the sand crab Emerita analoga (Stimpson 1857) in a reflective to intermediate morphodynamic range of sandy beaches

Sand crabs belonging to the genus Emerita are the dominant species on sandy beaches of the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of America. The success of this genus has been attributed to the great phenotypic plasticity of life history traits that enables them to cope with swash climate variability from beach to beach. The burrowing rate and variation in carapace shape of Emerita analoga from south-central Chile were studied on a series of five sandy beaches with contrasting reflective-intermediate swash conditions (harsher swash to benign swash). Environmental sampling was carried out monthly from September 2009 to November 2010, while biological experiments were conducted in September and October 2010. A combination of field experiments, geometric morphometric tools and multivariate analysis was used to assess the relationship between burrowing behavior and carapace shape with variables of swash climate. Our results showed that (1) body shape of E. analoga is directly affected by the frequency of effluent line crossing, (2) burrowing rate of E. analoga is affected directly by shape variability, (3) burrowing rate is affected directly and indirectly by the swash climate variables: frequency of effluent line crossing and mean grain size of sediment. Thus, the physical conditions in the intertidal zone may be the main environmental constraints determining cephalothorax shape, with a wider cephalothorax on beaches with finer sand and more benign physical dynamics, and a narrower shape on beaches with coarser sand and harsher physical dynamics. The latter phenotype (narrower shape) probably allows compensating the high difficulty of burying in coarser sediments.     

Role of bacteria with regard to chitin degradation in the digestive tract of the cod Gadus morhua

Numbers of aerobic, heterotrophic and chitinolytic bacteria in stomach, pyloric caeca and intestine of eight specimens of freshly caught cod (Gadus morhua L.) were determined by the spread plate method (medium: sea water agar, including 1% chitin). In crude enzyme extracts, chitinase activity was assayed according to the end product measurement. Results revealed no correlation between the number of chitinoclasts and the level of chitinase activity in any part of the digestive tract of cod. In another series of studies, antibiotics (Ampicillin/Sisomicin, or Chloramphenicol) were applied via tank water and feed. In most cases, antibiotic treatment resulted in the complete elimination of bacteria from the digestive tract. In contrast, up to 1.0×10⁹ chitinoclasts per g wet wt were determined in control fish. Chitinase did not reflect the absence or presence of bacteria: no significant difference in enzyme activities of cod treated with Ampicillin/Sisomicin and non-treated fish could be demonstrated. A decrease of chitinase activities of cod exposed to Chloramphenicol is interpreted as a toxic effect of this antibiotic on the fish. It is concluded that chitinase activities measured in the digestive tract of G. morhua primarily originate from fish tissues.Results presented in this paper are part of the author's Ph.D. dissertation. Authorization for pre-publication was given by the Graduation Committee of the Biology Department, University of Hamburg     

Shell parameters in relation to zonation in mediterranean limpets

The relation of shell form to habitat in the Mediterranean limpets Patella caerulea (L.) and P. lusitanica (Gmelin) was investigated. P. caerulea shells were significantly longer, broader, but lower in height than P. lusitanica shells. The regression of the ratio (length plus breadth)/2 on the height of the shell was found to characterize the two limpet populations, with a small degree of overlap reflecting the distribution of the two limpets on the shore.     

Prey vulnerability in relation to sexual coloration of prey

Sexual selection that results in the evolution of exaggerated secondary sexual characters has been hypothesized to impose production and maintenance costs of such traits on their bearers. Costs arising from sexual selection could increase the intensity of predator-mediated natural selection, leading to the prediction that species with exaggerated secondary sexual characters should be particularly susceptible to predation. We tested this prediction in a comparative analysis based on 31,745 prey individuals belonging to 66 species of birds collected from a total of 937 breeding events by 33 to 66 different pairs of European sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus annually during a period of 21 years. To assess vulnerability of different species we estimated a prey vulnerability index based on the difference in the logarithmically transformed absolute abundance of prey minus the logarithmically transformed expected abundance as determined by population density of breeding birds. The prey vulnerability index was predicted by sexual dichromatism, accounting for 23% of the variance in risk of predation among species, even when considering similarity in phenotype among species due to common descent (in the latter case explaining 12% of the variance). This finding suggests that sexual selection is an important evolutionary force-affecting predator–prey interactions.Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at     

Spatial patterns of macroalgal abundance in relation to eutrophication

Based on a large monitoring data set from Danish coastal waters we tested the hypotheses: (1) The vertical pattern of algal abundance is regulated by exposure in shallow water and by light limitation towards deeper water, resulting in a bell-shaped abundance curve, with peak abundance located deeper at more exposed sites, (2) in deeper water, total algal abundance and abundance of perennial algae decrease along a eutrophication gradient while (3) abundance and relative abundance of opportunists increase. The vertical pattern of algal abundance showed a peak at intermediate water depths which was located deeper in more exposed areas and thus confirmed our first hypothesis. For algae growing from depths of peak abundance and deeper, the study demonstrated that total algal abundance and abundance of perennials and opportunists at given depths decreased significantly along a eutrophication gradient and the relationships had high explanatory power (R ² = 0.53–0.73). These results confirmed our second hypothesis. By contrast, the relative abundance of opportunists responded solely to salinity and was largest in the most brackish areas, in contradiction to hypothesis three. The lack of coupling between eutrophication and relative abundance of opportunists arises because both opportunists and the entire algal community were light limited and their ratio therefore relatively insensitive to changing water clarity. The analyses indicated that algal abundance initially responded slowly to increasing eutrophication but showed a more marked response at TN concentrations of 35–40 μM. However, the existence of possible threshold nutrient levels demands further analyses.     

Phytoplankton composition in relation to primary production in Chesapeake Bay

The dominant phytoplankton taxa during seasonal periods of peak primary productivity were identified during a 4 yr study (July 1989 to June 1993) in Chesapeake Bay. Maximum phytoplankton abundance occurred from late winter to early spring, and was dominated by a few species of centric diatoms. This development was followed by more diversified assemblages of diatoms and phytoflagellates that produced additional concentration peaks in summer and fall; all these maxima were accompanied by concurrent productivity peaks. High summer productivity resulted when the phytoplankton concentrations of diatoms and phytoflagellates were augmented by an increased abundance of autotrophic picoplankton. There was variability in both the seasonal and annual growth maxima of these algal populations and in total productivity. Higher cell concentrations and productivity were associated with higher nutrient levels on the western side of the bay, at sites adjacent to major tributaries. Periods of highest productivity were in spring and summer, ranging from 176 to 346 g Cm^-2yr^-1 over the 4 yr period, with a mean annual productivity of 255 g Cm^-2yr^-1. The bay stations rates ranged from 82 to 538 g Cm^-2yr^-1.     

稻田甲烷氧化与铵氧化关系研究进展

稻田生态系统中存在着好氧微域,其中同时发生甲烷氧化和铵氧化。甲烷和铵氧化过程具有极为相似的微生物机理。稻田土壤中的甲烷可能影响铵氧化过程;施用铵态氮肥对甲烷的氧化也有强烈影响。本文对稻田土壤中甲烷氧化与铵氧化关系做一简要综述。     

The effects of salt exclusion during ice formation on circulation in lakes

Laboratory experiments have been performed to investigate the effects of salt exclusion on the behaviour of lakes with salinities up to 8 g L^?1. At these salinities the freezing temperature is less than the temperature of maximum density and, unlike sea-ice, a reverse temperature stratification forms beneath the ice that can support at least some of the excluded salt. Temperature time series at four depths showed that salt exclusion drives cascades of localised overturning, while the persistence of reverse temperature stratification indicated that mixing was not complete. While our array of temperature sensors had insufficient spatial resolution to provide full details of the flow, we hypothesize that: at salinities of 1 and 2 g L^?1  salt is released relatively uniformly and forms a layer of elevated salinity immediately below the ice, which supports double-diffusive salt-fingering; and at salinities of 4 and 8 g L^?1, salt plumes penetrate the reverse stratification. After the ice melted, a relatively fresh surface layer formed above a more saline layer, sufficient to suppress spring turnover. Our measurements compare favourably with field observations from lakes, and highlight the importance of salt exclusion on biogeochemical processes in lakes.     

Macrozoobenthic assemblages in relation to environments of the Yangtze-isolated lakes

Eutrophication can shift lakes from a clear, macrophyte-dominated state to a turbid, algae-dominated state, and different habitat condition supports different fauna. Macrozoobenthos are good indicators of water environment, and studies on macrozoobenthic assemblage characteristics can help us to know which state a lake is in, thus provide the basis for its eutrophication control. In this study, a systematic investigation on macrozoobenthos was conducted in 17 Yangtze-isolated lakes to explore the macroecological laws of macrozoobenthic assemblages. Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) revealed that variance of benthic assemblage structure occurred in two types of lakes. In macrophytic lakes, altogether 51 taxa of macrozoobenthos were identified. The average density and biomass of total macrozoobenthos were 2231 individuals·m^?2 and 1.69 g dry weight·m^?2, respectively. Macrozoobenthic assemblage was characterized by dominance of scrapers (i.e. gastropods). In algal lakes, altogether 20 taxa of macrozoobenthos were identified. The average density and biomass of total macrozoobenthos were 2814 individuals·m^?2 and 1.38 g dry weight·m^?2, respectively. Macrozoobenthic assemblage was characterized by dominance of collector-gatherers (i.e. oligochaetes). Wet biomass of submersed macrophytes (B _Mac) and phytoplankton chlorophyll a concentration (Chl a) were demonstrated as the key factor structuring macrozoobenthic assemblages in macrophytic and algal lakes, respectively.     

Fecundity and survival in relation to resistance to oxidative stress in a free-living bird

Major life history traits, such as fecundity and survival, have been consistently demonstrated to covary positively in nature, some individuals having more resources than others to allocate to all aspects of their life history. Yet, little is known about which resources (or state variables) may account for such covariation. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are natural by-products of metabolism and, when ROS production exceeds antioxidant defenses, organisms are exposed to oxidative stress that can have deleterious effects on their fecundity and survival. Using a wild, long-lived bird, the Alpine Swift (Apus melba), we examined whether individual red cell resistance to oxidative stress covaried with fecundity and survival. We found that males that survived to the next breeding season tended to be more resistant to oxidative stress, and females with higher resistance to oxidative stress laid larger clutches. Furthermore, the eggs of females with low resistance to oxidative stress were less likely to hatch than those of females with high resistance to oxidative stress. By swapping entire clutches at clutch completion, we then demonstrated that hatching failure was related to the production of low-quality eggs by females with low resistance to oxidative stress, rather than to inadequate parental care during incubation. Although male and female resistance to oxidative stress covaried with age, the relationships among oxidative stress, survival, and fecundity occurred independently of chronological age. Overall, our study suggests that oxidative stress may play a significant role in shaping fecundity and survival in the wild. It further suggests that the nature of the covariation between resistance to oxidative stress and life history traits is sex specific, high resistance to oxidative stress covarying primarily with fecundity in females and with survival in males.