The regional impacts of small-scale gold mining in Amazonia

Gold mining is the major economic activity in the Upper Tapajós River Basin of the Brazilian Amazon. This article studies the structure, economy and impacts of gold mining operations in this region. Mining has significant environmental impacts in this region resulting in the removal of approximately 67 million m³ of sub-soil per year and accompanied by an annual release of some 12 tons of mercury to air, ground and rivers. In the early 1990s there were 245 mines in operation, employing some 30000 people and producing around 35t gold per year, valued at approximately $400 million yr^-1, the profits being about $110 million yr^-1. Miners spent most of their earnings on local goods and services, while mine owners and merchants in the gold towns invested in land (mainly for ranching), business ventures and money markets. Wealth gained from mining has served as an engine for development in other regions of the world and could, theoretically, achieve the same for Amazonia. However, before this could happen, the Government of Brazil would need to mark a strong presence in the area by providing technical assistance and developing and enforcing mining/environmental regulations. The likelihood of such a development materializing in the foreseeable future is small. In the meantime, gold mining acts, not as an 'engine for development', but as a destabilizing force — provoking environmental damage, social discord and public health hazards in the region.     

Regulation of the environmental impacts of coal mining in the USA

Decades of environmentally unregulated coal mining in the USA have resulted in thousands of polluted streams, contaminated groundwater aquifers, subsidence effects, scarred hill sides and massive waste dumps. Similar environmental damage due to coal mining has occurred in Eastern Europe. In the USA, to correct the environmental damage due to coal mining, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act was passed in 1977. This paper examines the provisions of the Act in detail and ends with a warning to the Eastern European countries. 'The lessons to he learned from the US experience may be reduced to one essential observation: unregulated coal mining in a free market economy can cause extremely serious environmental harm with attendant adverse social and economic impacts which cannot be effectively resolved without comprehensive and strict governmental regulation' .     

Economic implications of long distance commuting in the Chilean mining industry

More than 10% of the labor force that works in Antofagasta lives in other regions, commuting on average more than 800 km in a shift system that allows working several days in a row followed by several days off. The mining industry is the main contractor of such workers and the impact of the process spreads through the rest of the Chilean territory.Using an input-output approach, this paper shows that a significant amount of resources generated by the mining industries in the Region of Antofagasta goes to other regions in wages earned by commuters who have decided to work in this region but live in another. The commuting process seems to be driven by centripetal forces that support centralization, thus arguing for regional policies to promote the attractiveness of the peripheral regions.     

Quantifying the impacts of primary metal resource use in life cycle assessment based on recent mining data

The quantification of impacts in the abiotic resource category in life cycle assessment is still controversial. However, this is a pertinent issue because of the growing dependence of our industrial society on these resources, particularly on metal resources. One of the important shortcomings of the existing assessment methods used today is that characterization factors are not based on actual mining practice data. In this paper, a new characterization factor derived from recent (1998–2010) and representative (more than 50% coverage of global primary metal production) mining data was established for nine metals: copper, zinc, lead, nickel, molybdenum, gold, silver, platinum and palladium. The quantification of this new characterization factor is based on the annual increase in mass of ore required per unit mass of metal in the ore. This quantification relies on the concept that the mining of resources is threatened not by lack of ores but by changing ore characteristics, e.g., the percentage of metal in the ore, mineral type and location. The characterization factors determined in this study ranged from below 0.1 kg ore kg⁻¹ y⁻¹ for zinc to more than 15,000 kg ore kg⁻¹ y⁻¹ for gold. These results indicate that in 1999, 370,000 kg of ore was required per kg of gold in the ore, whereas in 2008, 530,000 kg of ore was required per kg of gold in the ore (an increase of approximately 4% per annum). When comparing these results with traditional life cycle impact assessment methods, it was found that in all but one method gold, palladium and platinum have the highest characterization factors among the nine metals. In all methods based on ore grade changes lead and zinc are the metals with the lowest characterization factors. However, an important difference in the proposed method is that it assigns higher relative values to precious metals. This suggests that the supply of precious metals may be under more pressure than indicated by other methods, which in the framework of the proposed method implies greater efforts in mining and mineral processing. There is still scope for improvement of the proposed method if more data become readily available.     

Economic and employment impacts of offshore wind for Ireland: A value chain analysis

ABSTRACT

The imminent development of a number of offshore wind farms in the Republic of Ireland presents a sizable opportunity to stimulate the Irish economy through the growth of an indigenous and globally competitive offshore wind supply chain. This study uses a value chain analysis to evaluate the economic and employment potential of the offshore wind sector for Ireland. The analysis is based on the expenditure on products and services required to develop an offshore wind farm, the planned capacity of projects in the pipeline, and the ability of Irish companies to supply the sector. Results suggest that by 2030, 2.5–4.5GW of domestic offshore wind development could create between 11,424 and 20,563 supply chain jobs and generate between €763 m and €1.4bn in gross value added. This is the first study to estimate domestic GVA potential for the sector.     

A regional environmental information system for analyzing and predicting the impacts of nonferrous mining on an agricultural environment

Mineral exploitation is a necessary component of China's economic development goals. Such exploitation brings with it the potential for serious environmental degradation. Careful environmental impact assessments of mining projects are required in order to implement China's environmental protection law and identify measures for protecting surrounding agricultural environments. This article describes an environmental information system that has been developed for the purpose of assisting with the environmental impact assessment of nonferrous mining operations with a particular focus on agricultural impacts. An application of the environmental information system to the Yongping copper mine, located in Jiangxi Province, is discussed. The role of the environmental information system is analyzing and predicting soil contamination from heavy metals and other types of impacts from this mining operation is described. The environmental information system is designed for implementation on an IBM PC/XT microcomputer. The experience gained from the Yongping copper mine application and the growing popularity of microcomputers in China indicate a significant potential for the effective use of a microcomputer-based environmental information system in other parts of China.     

Challenges to measuring,monitoring, and addressing the cumulative impacts of artisanal and small-scale gold mining in Ecuador

Portovelo-Zaruma, Ecuador is an artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) region with approximately 6000 gold miners working with mercury and cyanide. Although artisanal gold mining (AGM) has taken place in Portovelo-Zaruma for centuries, highly mechanized small-scale gold mining (SGM) processing plants capable of increased throughput began being built in the 1990s. While there are benefits associated with ASGM, there are also negative impacts experienced by the miners and the surrounding communities. To take advantage of ASGM as a poverty-alleviating mechanism while reducing unwanted externalities, the cumulative impacts must be understood. Numerous challenges to measuring, monitoring, and addressing ASGM impacts result from the complexity of the impacts themselves, the nature of the gold mining as an informal industry, and the shortfalls in the current regulatory framework. These are discussed in the context of ongoing, unresolved issues including efforts to address trans-boundary water pollution, management of mining waste, and conflicts regarding priorities, ambiguities, and enforcement of existing regulations and policies. Internationally, interventions to address both AGM and SGM impacts have typically focused almost exclusively on technological changes through the elimination of mercury use. Our analysis suggests that to better address ASGM and their cumulative impacts in Ecuador, it will be beneficial to revisit the legal definitions of AGM and SGM. Additionally, promotion of information-based strategies including educational outreach programs and cross-scale and cross-level mitigation methods may also be beneficial. The success of these strategies to reduce ASGM-related cumulative impacts will depend on sufficient funding and the commitment of stakeholders.     

The stone forum: Implementing a consensus building methodology to address impacts associated with small mining and quarry operations

Small-scale mining, including quarry operations, continues to play an important social and economic role in hundreds of communities throughout Brazil. Often operating outside the formal economy, conflicts between the owners of small-scale mining operations, the mineworkers, various government agencies, and other stakeholders have contributed to the progressive degradation of the environment, poor health and safety standards, and low productivity. The Centre for Mineral Technology (CETEM) of Brazil is implementing a consensus building methodology in order to produce dimension stone by small-scale miners on a more sustainable basis in the Pádua region, located in the northwest of the State of Rio de Janeiro. The approach being used by CETEM is based on its own experience in working with gold prospectors in the Amazon, and lessons and experiences learned from Canadian officials and industry representatives. The lessons and insights gained from this project may prove to be useful to those involved in addressing similar problems elsewhere in Brazil, South America and around the world.     

Using the multiple capitals framework to connect indicators of regional cumulative impacts of mining and pastoralism in the Murray Darling Basin,Australia

It is commonly recognized that there are constraints to successful regional-scale assessment and monitoring of cumulative impacts because of challenges in the selection of coherent and measurable indicators of the effects. It has also been sensibly declared that the connections between components in a region are as important as the state of the elements themselves. These have previously been termed “linked” cumulative impacts/effects. These connections can be difficult to discern because of a complicated set of interactions and unexpected linkages. In this paper we diagnose that a significant cause of these constraints is the selection of indicators without due regard for their inter-relationships in the formulation of the indicator set. The paper examines whether the common “forms of capital”, i.e., natural (renewable and non-renewable), manufactured, social, human and financial capitals, framework is a potential organizing structure. We examine a large region in western NSW Australia where the predominant production systems are mining and grazing for production of wool, beef and lamb. Production in both is driven by consumption of a non-renewable resource, i.e., ore for mining and topsoil for grazing, the latter on the basis that loss rate estimates far exceed soil formation rates. We propose that the challenge of identifying connections of components within and between capital stores can be approached by explicitly separating stores of capital and the flows of capital between stores and between elements within stores, so-called capital fluxes. We attempt to acquire data from public sources for both capital stores and fluxes. The question of whether these data are a sufficient base for regional assessment, with particular reference to connections, is discussed. The well-described challenge of a comparative common currency for stores and fluxes is also discussed. We conclude that the data acquisition is relatively successful for stores and fluxes. A number of linked impacts are identified and discussed. The potential use of money as the common currency for stores and fluxes of capital is considered. The basic proposition is that replacement or preservation costs be used for this. We conclude that the study is sufficiently positive to consider further research in fully-coupled models of capital stores and fluxes.     

Radiological impacts of phosphogypsum

This study was carried out to assess the radiological impact of Syrian phosphogypsum (PG) piles in the compartments of the surrounding ecosystem. Estimating the distribution of naturally occurring radionuclides (i.e. (226)Ra, (238)U, (232)Th, (210)Po and (210)Pb) in the raw materials, product and by-product of the Syrian phosphate fertilizer industry was essential. The data revealed that the concentrations of the radionuclides were enhanced in the treated phosphate ore. In PG, (226)Ra content had a mean activity of 318 Bq kg(-1). The uranium content in PG was low, ca. 33 Bq kg(-1), because uranium remained in the phosphoric acid produced. Over 80% of (232)Th, (210)Po and (210)Pb present partitioned in PG. The presence of PG piles did not increase significantly the concentration of (222)Rn or gamma rays exposure dose in the area studied. The annual effective dose was only 0.082 mSv y(-1). The geometric mean of total suspended air particulates (TSP) ca. 85 μg m(-3). The activity concentration of the radionuclides in filtrates and runoff waters were below the detection limits (ca. 0.15 mBq L(-1) for (238)U, 0.1 mBq L(-1) for (232)Th and 0.18 mBq L(-1) for both of (210)Po and (210)Pb); the concentration of the radionuclides in ground water samples and Qattina Lake were less than the permissible limits set for drinking water by the World Health Organisation, WHO, (10, 1 and 0.1 Bq L(-1) for (238)U, (232)Th and both of (210)Po and (210)Pb, respectively). Eastern sites soil samples of PG piles recorded the highest activity concentrations, i.e. 26, 33, 28, 61 and 40 Bq kg(-1) for (226)Ra, (238)U, (232)Th, (210)Po and (210)Pb, respectively, due to the prevailing western and north-western wind in the area, but remained within the natural levels reported in Syrian soil (13-32 Bq kg(-1) for (226)Ra, 24.9-62.2 Bq kg(-1) for (238)U and 10-32 Bq kg(-1) for (232)Th). The impact of PG piles on plants varied upon the plant species. Higher concentrations of the radionuclides were recorded for grass in comparison to broad-leaved plants. Among the species that grow naturally on PG piles, Inula, Ecballium and Polygonium may be radionuclides accumulators. A determined effort is needed at a national level to achieve a common and coherent approach to regulate PG piles or to consider it a resource material rather than waste or residue.     

Economic evaluation of environmental impacts: Design of a cost benefit analysis of the lower guayas flood control project,equador

Summary The linkage between ecology and economics can be made by describing our physical surroundings as possessing environmental functions. As soon as the uses of these functions compete with each other, the environment has an economic aspect. The main conflict boils down to using environmental functions, such as the functions of mangroves, in an unsustainable way by maximising production in the short run, on the one hand, and using functions sustainably in order to benefit from them in the long run, on the other.The intensity of preferences for the future availability of functions cannot be established. From this it follows that the level of the discount rate, when calculating long-term environmental effects, can also not be set. Using the market interest as the discount rate for calculating the present value of long-term environmental costs and benefits means that the preferences for sustainable use of the environment amount to zero, for in that case the present value of a dollar earned 100 years from now is practically nil. This is a strong supposition, the correctness of which cannot be proven. Unfortunately most cost-benefit analyses, such as those of the World Bank, are based on this supposition.Dr Roefie Hueting is the Head of the Department of Environmental Statistics at the Netherlands Central Bureau of Statistics. This paper represents a revision of a report originally written by the author for HASKONING, Royal Dutch Consulting Engineers and Architects, Guayaquil, Ecuador.     

Legitimizing industry and multi-sectoral regulation of cumulative impacts: A comparison of mining and energy development in Athabasca,Canada and the Hunter Valley,Australia

The Alberta oil sands industry and the New South Wales coal industry both faced controversies related to their cumulative impacts. In an attempt to generate hypotheses, we compared their attempts to maintain legitimacy, in its various aspects, for both their industries and the regulatory regimes that evolved as the controversies persisted. Both the existing literature and the two cases suggest that greater use of multi-sectoral stakeholder forums for the governance of cumulative impacts can bolster the legitimacy of both the industry and its regulatory regime, including those aspects handled through self-regulation. The cases suggested the additional hypotheses that (a) the importance of the decisions allocated to the multi-stakeholder regulatory forum affects legitimacy perceptions generally, and (b) the multi-stakeholder approach to regulation does little to bolster legitimacy when stakeholders include activists who are more interested in transnational issues than local cumulative impacts.     

Modeling the impact of revegetation on regional water quality: A collective approach to manage the cumulative impacts of mining in the Bowen Basin,Australia

In this paper we quantify the additional water quality benefits that can be achieved through coordinated cumulative impact management. To do this we simulate coordinated and un-coordinated revegetation investments and compare their impact on achieving regional water quality goals. Our results show that coordination between multiple mining companies achieves additional benefits since prioritization is enabled across a broader range of investment opportunities. Additionally, when coordinated investment is permitted beyond the boundaries of coal mining leases, results show that additional benefits are greatly enhanced since these regions provide more rewarding investment opportunities. Results illustrate (a) how regional coordination may influence reputational benefits of investments, and (b) that coordination is beneficial when investment opportunities are unevenly distributed across the landscape. When additional benefits are achievable, we suggest that mining companies should develop collective investment projects with an understanding of how coordination influences project costs. Similarly, investment projects should be developed with an understanding of investment tradeoffs and how these may adversely impact on regional stakeholders and hence industry reputation. The mining industry has significant potential to contribute to regional wellbeing; however, land management policies must be flexible and promote incentives to enable companies to invest beyond compliance.     

The use of aggregate complaints data as an indicator of cumulative social impacts of mining: A case study from the Hunter valley,NSW, Australia

Generally speaking, there is a greater amount of quantitative data available to measure and model the cumulative environmental or economic impacts of mining than the social impacts. In part, this is because social impacts are often inherently more difficult to quantify, but historically there have also been fewer regulatory drivers for companies or state agencies to invest in collecting such data. Regulators in some jurisdictions are now starting to require resource companies to report on aspects of their social performance, but companies and regulators are still struggling to identify appropriate metrics, particularly in regards to cumulative impacts. This paper describes an innovative quantitative approach to tracking how communities experience and respond to increased mining activity, using data from the complaints registers maintained by mines located in the Upper Hunter Valley in New South Wales, Australia. In this study, complaints lodged with five separate mines adjacent to the township of Muswellbrook over several years were aggregated and trends analysed. The aggregated set showed that complaint frequency increased with the increase in mining activity but then decreased as individual complaints were addressed. However, when complaints from near-neighbours were removed, it emerged that the proportion of complaints that came from the town itself steadily increased over time. Further analysis indicated that this increase was closely associated with the amount of mine-disturbed land that could be seen from the town over time, as measured using a combination of remotely sensed data and a digital elevation model. This is persuasive evidence of a cumulative social impact that is more than just the sum of the local impacts of individual mines.     

Analyzing interdependent impacts of resource sustainability

Quantifying the impact of the shortage of a scarce resource requires a systemic account of the interdependent nature of several industry and infrastructure sectors that rely either directly or indirectly on that resource. An ability to quickly and easily quantify such an impact provides policymakers with a useful measure of the efficacy of discovering, designing, or developing a sustainable alternative. Discussed in this paper is a methodological approach for measuring the broader interdependent impacts of a resource shortage. The dynamic inoperability input–output model (DIIM) is used to illustrate both the economic effects of resource shortages over a period of time and the time-dependent recovery of industry sectors. Extensions to the DIIM are introduced to produce an accessible tool for policymakers and industry decision makers. Case studies using publicly available data illustrate the usefulness of the model for describing local oil production shortages and global rare earth metals supply shortages, highlighting the industries that will need to adapt to changes in resource availability, as well as those industries that will remain relatively unaffected. Above all, the model presented in this paper is an effective means of communicating the impact and importance of resource shortages to assist in the design and development of a sustainable future.     

Trade-offs in assessing environmental impacts

Summary The evolution of the environmental issue has moved through the early stage of technological fixes and estimable economic costs into an area of larger uncertainty and higher information costs.The economic costs of pollution control are about one percent of the GNP. The technological fixes have improved air and water quality somewhat; but in air quality little reduction in nitrogen oxides has been achieved, and in water quality about 25 percent of the water is poor or worse, with high fecal coliform bacteria.The next stage of environmental improvement is to reduce hazardous chemical elements in the environment. In these areas, the health and biological effects are still uncertain, information costs are high, and subjective judgments are common.As uncertainty and qualitative judgments have become more prominent in environmental decisions, delays have been introduced into the decision loops, raising regulatory costs, and heightening adversary stresses between business and environmentalists. The stresses place an aura of arbitrariness over regulations in a milieu where the governability of society is already questioned. This is not the time to retreat from environmental improvement, but to try to simplify the decision process. Two possible alternatives are to codify court precedents into a more rigorous reliance on agency administration law, or to revert to the common rules of civil law that complainants must show damage and cause before an award is allowable by an administrative agency. Either of these options would free the decision making process of delays and allow it to function prospectively, while allowing environmental damages from inadequate decisions to be remedied retroactively. Potential liabilities may increase, but at least the decision process could move forward without being frustrated by regulatory delays.     

The Ethiopian mining sector

The Ethiopian Constitution of 1928 vests in the state ownership of all mineral resources. However, the mining code of 1944 recognized the right of individuals and private companies to explore for and develop those resources. The results were quite impressive; Ethiopia became a producer of gold, platinum, copper and other minerals. A revised mining code in 1971 further extended the rights of individuals and companies to develop the mineral resources of the country. In 1974, the newly established revolutionary government eliminated private ownership of mines and established instead state-owned mining companies to develop the mineral resources of the country. In time, the demand for government funding by other sectors of the economy left little for the mining sector and it went into decline. To correct that problem, the Government of Ethiopia in 1989 decided to again make private ownership in the mining sector legal. This paper describes some of the recent initiatives to open the mining sector to private enterprise.