Environmental disaster,pollution and infant health: Evidence from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill

In 2010 the Gulf Coast experienced the largest oil spill affecting U.S. waters in history. Evaporating crude oil and dispersant chemicals can cause major health problems. This paper examines the impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on air quality and infant health outcomes. Using U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) AirData, vital statistics data from National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), and a difference-in-difference methodology, we find that the oil spill of 2010 increased concentrations of PM2.5, NO2, SO2, and CO in affected coastal counties, increased incidence of low birth weight (<2500 g) and premature born infants (<37 weeks of gestation). Heterogeneity effects reveal more pronounced adverse infant health outcomes for black, Hispanic, less educated, unmarried, and younger mothers. Results are robust to a wide range of controls and robustness checks.     

Ecomanagement of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in the Mediterranean Sea: concerns and strategies

Marine biodiversity is generally higher in benthic than in pelagic systems, and in coastal than in open sea systems. Sediments are the most human-impacted domain and therefore represent the target zone for both the study and actions needed for the preservation of biodiversity. Losses of marine diversity, higher (or simply more evident) in coastal areas, are generally the result of conflicting uses of coastal habitats. Large difficulties arise from the analysis and evaluation of the actual biodiversity, especially when different environments are compared, as often studies on biodiversity are dependent upon the distribution of the specialists. On the other hand, losses of marine biodiversity might be underestimated, due to the limited knowledge of the ecosystems' functioning, of the species inhabiting various habitats and of the still limited capacity to assess microbial biodiversity, which represents the largest fraction of the global marine biodiversity. Finally, claimed losses of biodiversity might be just apparent, as the sea floor is a bank of resting stages of various plankton species that are likely to spend even decades in the sediment before reactivating and inducing unattended blooms in the water column. The Mediterranean Sea displays high species diversity, but might reach the highest values in terms of adaptive strategies and functional diversity. Moreover, the Mediterranean Sea represents also a key area for the study of the relative influences of the natural and anthropogenic changes on biodiversity and its consequences on ecosystem functioning. Habitat destruction, over-fishing, contaminants, eutrophication, introduction of alien species, and climate changes are producing increasingly evident changes in community structure and biodiversity of this warm and miniature ocean. We summarized the main effects of different disruptive agents on the marine biodiversity of the Mediterranean Sea, with special attention on the biodiversity relevance in ecosystem functioning and possible implications in bio-geochemical cycles. The present overview aims at focusing and synthesizing the most important factors potentially affecting the interactions between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in the Mediterranean in order to better define possible strategies of conservation and eco-management.     

Hawksbill sea turtles in seagrass pastures: success in a peripheral habitat

Hawksbill sea turtles, Eretmochelys imbricata, are closely associated with coral reef and other hard-bottom habitats. Seagrass pastures are peripheral habitats for Caribbean hawksbills. With the decline in quality and quantity of coral reefs, seagrass habitats may become more important for hawksbills. We use data from a 30-year mark-recapture study of hawksbills and green turtles, Chelonia mydas, in the southern Bahamas to assess the quality of a seagrass habitat for hawksbills. Size distribution, residence times, and body condition index for the seagrass hawksbill aggregation are similar to those of hawksbill aggregations over Caribbean reefs. Somatic growth rates of seagrass hawksbills are in the upper range of those reported for reef hawksbills. Based on these parameters, peripheral seagrass habitats can support healthy, productive hawksbill aggregations. During the 30-year study, a sixfold variation in green turtle density in the study area did not affect the productivity or body condition of hawksbills.     

A review of marine pollution issues in the Caribbean

Marine pollution and coastal degradation have become serious development issues in the Caribbean. Early evidence of marine pollution was mainly anecdotal, but within the last 10--15 years, work conducted by universities and research institutions in the Region has provided the beginnings of a database that identifies several common marine pollution problems. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) and the Pan American World Health Organization (PAHO/WHO) have also been instrumental in co-ordinating several marine pollution studies. In the English-speaking Caribbean, the University of the West Indies, the Institute of Marine Affairs in Trinidad and Tobago, and the Caribbean Environmental Health Institute located in St Lucia, have taken a lead role in identifying marine pollution problems in their Sub-Region. For the Wider Caribbean a database for petroleum pollution and marine debris has been developed. Land-based sources of marine pollution have been identified as a major problem, with several hot spots identified in mainland countries and in some of the larger industrialised islands. Organic and nutrient pollution, particularly from sewage, is most widespread and is possibly the most serious marine pollution problem in the Caribbean. A lack of capital investment funds to install the appropriate infrastructure to deal with sewage and other liquid effluents is a major stumbling block to solving the problem of marine pollution in the Caribbean. Other factors include political will and administrative and legal structures to regulate human development activities.     

Deforestation: risk of sex ratio distortion in hawksbill sea turtles.

Phenotypic sex in sea turtles is determined by nest incubation temperatures, with warmer temperatures producing females and cooler temperatures producing males. The common finding of highly skewed female-biased hatchling sex ratios in sea turtle populations could have serious repercussions for the long-term survival of these species and prompted us to examine the thermal profile of a relatively pristine hawksbill nesting beach in Guadeloupe, French West Indies. Data loggers placed at nest depth revealed that temperatures in the forested areas were significantly cooler than temperatures in the more open, deforested areas. Using these temperatures as a predictor of sex ratio, we were able to assess the relative contributions of the different beach zones to the primary sex ratio: significantly more males were likely to be produced in the forested areas. Coastal forests are therefore important male-producing areas for the hawksbill sea turtle, and this has urgent conservation implications. On Guadeloupe, as on many Caribbean islands, deforestation rates are high and show few signs of slowing, as there is continual pressure to develop beachfront areas. The destruction of coastal forest could have serious consequences both in terms of local nesting behavior and of regional demography through the effects on population sex ratios. Human alterations to nesting habitat in other reptile taxa have been shown to modify the thermal properties of nest sites in ways that can disrupt their ecology by allowing parasite transmission, increasing vulnerability to climate change, or rendering existing habitat unsuitable.     

Environmental divergence: Air pollution in the USSR

The similarities between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. which arise out of the shared commitment to rapid development are not presumptive evidence of environmental convergence. We present evidence which casts doubt on the convergence argument, but stress the more fundamental error involved in failure to distinguish between the amount of environmental disruption produced by an economy and the environmental efficiency of an economic system. This analysis suggests either a relatively high degree of environmental efficiency for the Soviet economy or particular emphasis on pollution avoidance. Claims that air pollution in the U.S.S.R. is as extensive and severe as in the U.S. are both unfounded and unfortunate.     

Landbased Pollution Sources and Marine Environmental Quality in the Caribbean

Abstract

The near shore coastal and marine environment of several Caribbean islands is their most biologically productive and economically important zone. However, almost all landbased activities possess the real potential of degrading the quality of near shore waters and ultimately diminishing the utility of the marine resource. This condition is largely attributed to the individual smallness of the islands and their geographic proximity to each other.

Available sanitary water quality data from across the region indicated that while recreational areas are in general safe for water contact activities, bacterial densities in excess of several international criteria are consistently recorded in harbours. Organochlorine pesticide residues were generally in the 5 ng l^?1 range in unfiltered sea water but were significantly higher (1–100) ng g^?1 in limited samples of sediment and biota. Additional data requirements to gain further insight into the current state of the Caribbean environment are also identified.

A summary of the major land based sources of marine pollution (including sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural run-off) in the insular Caribbean is presented.     

Landbased Pollution Sources and Marine Environmental Quality in the Caribbean

The near shore coastal and marine environment of several Caribbean islands is their most biologically productive and economically important zone. However, almost all landbased activities possess the real potential of degrading the quality of near shore waters and ultimately diminishing the utility of the marine resource. This condition is largely attributed to the individual smallness of the islands and their geographic proximity to each other.

Available sanitary water quality data from across the region indicated that while recreational areas are in general safe for water contact activities, bacterial densities in excess of several international criteria are consistently recorded in harbours. Organochlorine pesticide residues were generally in the 5 ng l^-1 range in unfiltered sea water but were significantly higher (1-100) ng g^-1 in limited samples of sediment and biota. Additional data requirements to gain further insight into the current state of the Caribbean environment are also identified.

A summary of the major land based sources of marine pollution (including sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural run-off) in the insular Caribbean is presented.     

Temporal displacement of environmental crime: Evidence from marine oil pollution

We provide evidence for temporal displacement of illegal discharges of oil from shipping, a major source of ocean pollution, in response to a monitoring technology that features variation in the probability of conviction by time of day. During the nighttime, evidence collected by Coast Guard aircraft using radar becomes contestable in court because the nature of an identified spot cannot be verified visually by an observer on board of the aircraft. Seasonal variation in time of sunset is used to distinguish evasive behavior from daily routines on board. Using data from surveillance flights above the Dutch part of the North Sea during 1992–2011, we provide evidence for a sudden increase in illegal discharges after sunset across the year. Our results show that even a tiny chance of getting caught and a mild punishment can have a major impact on behavior.     

A link between ecological diversity indices and measures of biodiversity

The practice of environmental planning and protection frequently necessitates the quantification of ecological diversity. Traditional ‘ecological diversity indices’ are based on the abundances of species present. However, such indices are insensitive to taxonomic or similar differences. With equal species abundances they measure the species richness (species number) only. Conversely, so-called ‘biodiversity indices’ are based on species differences, but are insensitive to the abundance conditions. The quadratic entropy index is the only ecological diversity index, the value of which reflects both the differences ‘and’ abundances of the species. When a species list is given without abundance data, then, using the quadratic entropy index and postulating equal abundances, one gets the only biodiversity index derived from a traditional ecological index of diversity. Its extensive form is identical with the sum of differences or distances between the species present. This index trivially satisfies set monotonicity, an important property for biodiversity indices.     

Variation in adult annual survival probability and remigration intervals of sea turtles

We analyzed a large dataset to quantify adult annual survival probability and remigration intervals for the Tortuguero, Costa Rica green turtle population. Annual survival probability was estimated at 0.85 (95% CI 0.75–0.92) using a recovery model and at 0.85 (95% CI 0.83–0.87) using an open robust design model. The two most common modes of remigration are 2 and 3 years. Annual survival probability is lower and remigration intervals are shorter than for other green turtle populations. Explanations for short remigration intervals include reproductive compensation due to historic population declines, availability of better quality food items, favorable environmental conditions, and short distance to the main foraging grounds. Variation in survival and remigration intervals have profound consequences for management and life history evolution. The short remigration intervals of Tortuguero green turtles partly offset mortality caused by turtle fishing in Nicaragua and mean that low juvenile survival represents a more urgent threat to the population than low adult survival. Low adult survival probability could result in selective pressure for earlier age at maturity.     

Restoration of ecosystems for biodiversity and carbon sequestration: Simulating growth dynamics of brigalow vegetation communities in Australia

Restoration of abandoned and degraded ecosystems through enhanced management of mature remnant patches and naturally regenerating (regrowth) forests is currently being used in the recovery of ecosystems for biodiversity protection and carbon sequestration. Knowledge of long-term dynamics of these ecosystems is often very limited. Vegetation models that examine long-term forest growth and succession of uneven aged, mixed-species forest ecosystems are integral to the planning and assessment of the recovery process of biodiversity values and biomass accumulation. This paper examined the use of the Ecosystem Dynamics Simulator (EDS) in projecting growth dynamics of mature remnant brigalow forest communities and recovery process of regrowth brigalow thickets. We used data from 188 long-term monitored plots of remnant and regrowth forests measured between 1963 and 2010. In this study the model was parameterised for 34 tree and shrub species and tested with independent long-term measurements. The model closely approximated actual development trajectories of mature forests and regrowth thickets but some inaccuracies in estimating regeneration through asexual reproduction and mortality were noted as reflected in stem density projections of remnant plots that had a mean of absolute relative bias of 46.2 (±12.4)%. Changes in species composition in remnant forests were projected with a 10% error. Basal area values observed in all remnant plots ranged from 6 to 29 m² ha⁻¹ and EDS projections between 1966 and 2005 (39 years) were 68.2 (±10.9)% of the observed basal area. Projected live aboveground biomass of remnant plots had a mean of 93.5 (±5.9) t ha⁻¹ compared to a mean of 91.3 (±8.0) t ha⁻¹ observed in the plots. In regrowth thicket, the model produced satisfactory projections of tree density (91%), basal area (89%), height (87%) and aboveground biomass (84%) compared to the observed attributes. Basal area and biomass accumulation in 45-year-old regrowth plots was approximately similar to that in remnant forests but recovery of woody understorey was very slow. The model projected that it would take 95 years for the regrowth to thin down to similar densities observed in original or remnant brigalow forests. These results indicated that EDS can produce relatively accurate projections of growth dynamics of brigalow regrowth forests necessary for informing restoration planning and projecting biomass accumulation.     

Tributyltin pollution in sediments from Alexandria's coastal areas

Presence of Tributyltin (TBT) in Alexandria’s coastal water areas has been demonstrated by measuring concentrations of this compound. The TBT was measured in sediments from three docking areas namely: Western Harbour, Eastern Harbour and Abu Qir Bay. The sediment of those areas has been affected by marine traffic and other industrial activities. This is reflected by the distribution of TBT in the sediments nearby the shipyards in the three docking areas of the region where the average values of 258.6 ηg TBT/g for Western Harbour; 126.4 ηg TBT/g dw for Abu Qir Bay and 42.3 ηg TBT/g dw for the Eastern Harbour were recorded. This fact reflects the effect of industry and marine traffic on the marine environments of the Alexandria region.     

Tributyltin pollution in sediments from Alexandria's coastal areas

Presence of Tributyltin (TBT) in Alexandria's coastal water areas has been demonstrated by measuring concentrations of this compound. The TBT was measured in sediments from three docking areas namely: Western Harbour, Eastern Harbour and Abu Qir Bay. The sediment of those areas has been affected by marine traffic and other industrial activities. This is reflected by the distribution of TBT in the sediments nearby the shipyards in the three docking areas of the region where the average values of 258.6 ηg TBT/g for Western Harbour; 126.4 ηg TBT/g dw for Abu Qir Bay and 42.3 ηg TBT/g dw for the Eastern Harbour were recorded. This fact reflects the effect of industry and marine traffic on the marine environments of the Alexandria region.     

Post-nesting migrations of loggerhead sea turtles in the Gulf of Mexico: dispersal in highly dynamic conditions

This study is the first report of post-nesting migrations of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) nesting in Sarasota County (Florida, USA), their most important rookery in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM). In total, 28 females (curved carapace length CCL between 82.2 and 112.0 cm) were satellite-tracked between May 2005 and December 2007. Post-nesting migrations were completed in 3–68 days (mean ± SD = 23 ± 16 days). Five different migration patterns were observed: six turtles remained in the vicinity of their nesting site while the other individuals moved either to the south-western part of the Florida Shelf (n = 9 turtles), the Northeast GOM (n = 2 turtles), the South GOM (Yucatán Shelf and Campeche Bay, Mexico, and Cuba; n = 5 turtles) or the Bahamas (n = 6 turtles). In average, turtles moved along rather straight routes over the continental shelf but showed more indirect paths in oceanic waters. Path analyses coupled with remote sensing oceanographic data suggest that most of long-distance migrants reached their intended foraging destinations but did not compensate for the deflecting action of ocean currents. While six out of seven small individuals (CCL < 90 cm) remained on the Florida Shelf, larger individuals showed various migration strategies, staying on the Florida Shelf or moving to long-distance foraging grounds. This study highlights the primary importance the Western Florida Shelf in the management of the Florida Nesting Subpopulation, as well as the need of multi-national effort to promote the conservation of the loggerhead turtle in the Western Atlantic. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Identifying oceanic foraging grounds of sea turtles in the Atlantic using lead isotopes

Many species of marine organisms go through ontogenetic shifts that occur in unknown or inaccessible locations. Finding these areas is crucial to understand connectivity and resilience of populations, both of which have conservation implications. When extrinsic markers are not suitable to track organisms, intrinsic markers can be useful to infer the location of inaccessible areas where these cryptic stages occur. Our study focuses on the location of oceanic foraging areas of the cryptic early juvenile stage of green turtles, Chelonia mydas, in the Atlantic. Due to the small size of hatchlings, the use of telemetry is limited to short periods of time and small spatial ranges, which do not allow determining the location of oceanic foraging areas. We used lead (Pb) stable isotopes to determine the possible location of oceanic foraging areas of small green turtles in the Atlantic Ocean. Pb stable isotope ratios in the scute tissue deposited when turtles were in the oceanic habitat were compared to ratios of major sources of lead in the Atlantic and oceanic areas in the Atlantic to determine the location of oceanic foraging grounds. The Pb isotope ratios in the scute of oceanic-stage green turtles indicated that turtles use different regions in the Atlantic and that they are capable of transatlantic migrations. We compare the oceanic locations identified by this study with those suggested by two previous studies.     

Important areas at sea for adult loggerhead sea turtles in the Mediterranean Sea: satellite tracking corroborates findings from potentially biased sources

Sea turtle populations worldwide suffer from reduced survival of immatures and adults due to fishery bycatch. Unfortunately, information about the whereabouts of turtles outside the breeding habitat is scarce in most areas, hampering the development of spatially explicit conservation plans. In the Mediterranean, recoveries of adult females flipper-tagged on nesting beaches suggest that the Adriatic Sea and Gulf of Gabès are important foraging areas for adults, but such information could be heavily biased (observing and reporting bias). In order to obtain unbiased data, we satellite-tracked seven loggerhead sea turtles after they completed nesting in the largest known Mediterranean rookery (Bay of Laganas, Zakynthos, Greece). Three females settled in the north Adriatic Sea, one in the south Adriatic Sea and two in the Gulf of Gabès area at the completion of their post-nesting migrations (one individual did not occupy a distinct foraging area). The concordance of tracking results with information from recoveries of flipper-tagged turtles suggests that the north Adriatic Sea and the Gulf of Gabès represent key areas for female adult Mediterranean loggerhead sea turtles.     

Avoiding predation: alarm responses of Caribbean sea urchins to simulated predation on conspecific and heterospecific sea urchins

Alarm responses to the extracts of conspecifics and hetero-specifics were measured for the Caribbean sea urchins Echinometra viridis, E. lucunter, Lytechinus variegatus, L. williamsi, Tripneustes ventricosus, Diadema antillarum, and Eucidaris tribuloides collected along the Caribbean coast (9°3314N; 78°5523W) during October 1984 and July–December 1985. Responses to seawater and extracts of the gnathostomate echinoid Clypeaster sybdepressus were used as controls. The intensity of the response resulting from exposure to sea-urchin extracts was measured by: (1) the percentage of individuals that responded by moving away from the extract and/or towards shelter, and (2) the mean distance moved. Echinometra viridis, E. lucunter, and L. williamsi responded to sea-urchin extracts by moving towards nearby shelter sites. The distance that individuals of each species moved in the first minute following exposure to conspecific extracts was correlated with the distance that species moved from shelter while foraging. L. variegatus and D. antillarum, living in microhabitats not providing protection from predators, responded to extracts of conspecifics and heterospecifics by moving away from the direction of the extract. Eucidaris tribuloides did not exhibit alarm responses to the extracts of con- or hetero-specifics. E. tribuloides secures itself with its stout spines into protected sites within corals. Similarly, L. variegatus living in long, dense seagrass that provided protection from detection by predators, and D. antillarum occupying crevices, showed no alarm responses to extracts of conspecifics. Presumably, in these situations, sea urchins cannot increase their defenses against predation by moving away from an injured neighbor. T. ventricosus showed a weak response to extracts of L. variegatus, but no response to extracts of other species including conspecifics. The reasons for this lack of an alarm response are unclear. For the five species that demonstrated an alarm response to sea-urchin extracts, the intensity of the response varied depending on the type of extract used. L. variegatus, L. williamsi, and D. antillarum responded most strongly to extracts from conspecifics, while Echinometra viridis and E. lucunter responded strongly to extracts from both conspecifics and congeners. The weakest responses were shown to the extracts of T. ventricosus and Eucidaris tribuloides. Habitat overlap, overlap in predators, and phylogenetic relationships did not consistently explain patterns of alarm responses to the extracts of heterospecific sea urchins.     

Environmental behavior of antibiotic monensin: preliminary studies in Argentina

The increase of intensive bovine production systems in Argentina involves the use of therapeutic agents and growth promoters that reach the environment through animal excreta. The growth promoter most widely used in Argentina is monensin, an ionophore polyether antibiotic produced by Streptomyces cinnamoniensis. Here, the behavior of monensin in different solid environmental matrices is analyzed, and preliminary results that suggest a strong dependence of monensin retention with the organic matter content of the matrix are discussed.     

Optimal pollution permit endowments in markets with endogenous emissions

In a permit market with endogenous emissions, both firms and citizens purchase permits. Presented here are static and dynamic models of pollution permit markets with endogenous emissions. The optimal permit endowments are characterized when the regulator faces uncertainty about damages and uncertainty about the severity of the citizens’ collective action problem. Due to the possibility of learning over time, the regulator issues a larger number of permits in the first period of the dynamic model than in the static model.