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1.
Nicolas Mansuy Sylvie Gauthier Yves Bergeron 《Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change》2013,18(2):245-264
Afforestation has the potential to offset the increased emission of atmospheric carbon dioxide and has therefore been proposed as a strategy to mitigate climate change. Here we review the opportunities for carbon (C) offsets through open lichen woodland afforestation in the boreal forest of eastern Canada as a case study, while considering the reversal risks (low productivity, fires, insect outbreaks, changes in land use and the effects of future climate on growth potential as well as on the disturbances regime). Our results suggest that : (1) relatively low growth rate may act as a limiting factor in afforestation projects in which the time available to increase C is driven by natural disturbances; (2) with ongoing climate change, a global increase in natural disturbance rates, mainly fire and spruce budworm outbreaks, may offset any increases in net primary production at the landscape level; (3) the reduction of the albedo versus increase in biomass may negatively affect the net climate forcing; (4) the impermanence of C stock linked to the reversal risks makes this scenario not necessarily cost attractive. More research, notably on the link between fire risk and site productivity, is needed before afforestation can be incorporated into forest management planning to assist climate change mitigation efforts. Therefore, we suggest that conceivable mitigation strategies in the boreal forest will likely have to be directed activities that can reduce emissions and can increase C sinks while minimizing the reversal impacts. Implementation of policies to reduce Greenhouse Gases (GHG) in the boreal forest should consider the biophysical interactions, the different spatial and temporal scales of their benefits, the costs (investment and benefits) and how all these factors are influenced by the site history. 相似文献
2.
Managing climate change risks in New York City’s water system: assessment and adaptation planning 总被引:4,自引:0,他引:4
Cynthia Rosenzweig David C. Major Kate Demong Christina Stanton Radley Horton Melissa Stults 《Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change》2007,12(8):1391-1409
Managing risk by adapting long-lived infrastructure to the effects of climate change must become a regular part of planning
for water supply, sewer, wastewater treatment, and other urban infrastructure during this century. The New York City Department
of Environmental Protection (NYCDEP), the agency responsible for managing New York City’s (NYC) water supply, sewer, and wastewater
treatment systems, has developed a climate risk management framework through its Climate Change Task Force, a government-university
collaborative effort. Its purpose is to ensure that NYCDEP’s strategic and capital planning take into account the potential
risks of climate change—sea-level rise, higher temperature, increases in extreme events, changes in drought and flood frequency
and intensity, and changing precipitation patterns—on NYC’s water systems. This approach will enable NYCDEP and other agencies
to incorporate adaptations to the risks of climate change into their management, investment, and policy decisions over the
long term as a regular part of their planning activities. The framework includes a 9-step Adaptation Assessment procedure.
Potential climate change adaptations are divided into management, infrastructure, and policy categories, and are assessed
by their relevance in terms of climate change time-frame (immediate, medium, and long term), the capital cycle, costs, and
other risks. The approach focuses on the water supply, sewer, and wastewater treatment systems of NYC, but has wide application
for other urban areas, especially those in coastal locations. 相似文献
3.
The outcome of recent international climate negotiations suggests we are headed toward a more fragmented carbon market, with multiple emission trading and offset programs operating in parallel. To effectively harmonize and link across programs, it will be important to ensure that across offset programs and protocols that a “ton is a ton”. In this article, we consider how sample offsets projects in the U.S. carbon market are treated across protocols from five programs: the Clean Development Mechanism, Climate Action Reserve, Chicago Climate Exchange, Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, and the U.S. EPA's former program, Climate Leaders. We find that differences among protocols for landfill methane, manure management, and afforestation/reforestation project types in accounting boundary definitions, baseline setting methods, measurement rules, emission factors, and discounts lead to differences in offsets credited that are often significant (e.g. greater than 50%). We suggest opportunities for modification and harmonization of protocols that can improve offset quality and credibility and enhance prospects for future linking of trading units and systems. 相似文献
4.
New Caledonian crows Corvus moneduloides are the most prolific avian tool users. It has been suggested that some aspects of their complex tool use behaviour are under
the influence of cultural processes, involving the social transmission—and perhaps even progressive refinement—of tool designs.
Using microsatellite and mt-haplotype profiling of crows from three distinct habitats (dry forest, farmland and beachside
habitat), we show that New Caledonian crow populations can exhibit significant fine-scale genetic structuring. Our finding
that some sites of <10 km apart were highly differentiated demonstrates considerable potential for genetic and/or cultural
isolation of crow groups. Restricted movement of birds between local populations at such small spatial scales, especially
across habitat boundaries, illustrates how specific tool designs could be preserved over time, and how tool technologies of
different crow groups could diverge due to drift and local selection pressures. Young New Caledonian crows have an unusually
long juvenile dependency period, during which they acquire complex tool-related foraging skills. We suggest that the resulting
delayed natal dispersal drives population-divergence patterns in this species. Our work provides essential context for future
studies that examine the genetic makeup of crow populations across larger geographic areas, including localities with suspected
cultural differences in crow tool technologies. 相似文献
5.
N. H. Ravindranath Rajiv K. Chaturvedi N. V. Joshi R. Sukumar Jayant Sathaye 《Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change》2011,16(2):211-227
Climate change is projected to impact forest ecosystems, including biodiversity and Net Primary Productivity (NPP). National
level carbon forest sector mitigation potential estimates are available for India; however impacts of projected climate change
are not included in the mitigation potential estimates. Change in NPP (in gC/m2/yr) is taken to represent the impacts of climate change. Long term impacts of climate change (2085) on the NPP of Indian
forests are available; however no such regional estimates are available for short and medium terms. The present study based
on GCM climatology scenarios projects the short, medium and long term impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems especially
on NPP using BIOME4 vegetation model. We estimate that under A2 scenario by the year 2030 the NPP changes by (−5) to 40% across
different agro-ecological zones (AEZ). By 2050 it increases by 15% to 59% and by 2070 it increases by 34 to 84%. However,
under B2 scenario it increases only by 3 to 25%, 3.5 to 34% and (−2.5) to 38% respectively, in the same time periods. The
cumulative mitigation potential is estimated to increase by up to 21% (by nearly 1 GtC) under A2 scenario between the years
2008 and 2108, whereas, under B2 the mitigation potential increases only by 14% (646 MtC). However, cumulative mitigation
potential estimates obtained from IBIS—a dynamic global vegetation model suggest much smaller gains, where mitigation potential
increases by only 6% and 5% during the period 2008 to 2108. 相似文献
6.
Voluntary markets transacted over $66 million USD of forest carbon offsets in 2016, according to Forest Trends, and over 99% of those offset projects were audited to a standard, primarily the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS). We provide a table characterizing all 70 validated and verified forest carbon projects employing the VCS version 3.0 currently-in-use (December 2011–July 2017). We also examine two separate aspects of the audit process––impact and thoroughness––to assess the effectiveness of the costly audit process, which can consume up to one-third of offset revenue. Audit impact we measure in terms of reduction in the number of offsets from ex ante estimated to ex post approved. Audit thoroughness we measure both directly in terms of the number of auditor hours worked per project and also indirectly in terms of the total number of Corrective Action Requests (CARs)/Non-Conformity Reports (NCRs) auditors prescribe. In terms of impact, we find that Afforestation/Reforestation/Restoration (A/R/R) and Improved Forest Management (IFM) projects, though only constituting 5% of total verified offsets, demonstrate significant (p < = 0.05) reductions from ex ante estimated to ex post approved offsets, likely because auditors can easily scrutinize carbon stocks/emission factors for the commercial tree species involved in these project types. In terms of thoroughness, we find that higher ex ante estimates correlate with more total auditor hours worked and total CARs/NCRs prescribed for three of four project activity types, likely because auditors perceive larger ex ante projects as higher risk. We conclude with recommendations for the VCS to empower auditors to scrutinize carbon stocks/emissions factors from avoided deforestation projects, and also to continue to flag high ex ante projects as higher risk. 相似文献
7.
Hardner Jared J. Frumhoff Peter C. Goetze Darren C. 《Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change》2000,5(1):61-80
Should forest-based climate mitigationmeasures be approved for crediting through the CleanDevelopment Mechanism (CDM), they could offer anopportunity to accomplish three important objectives:cost-effective reductions in carbon emissions andsequestration of atmospheric carbon; conservation andrestoration of forests and their biological diversity;and, the assistance of host countries and communitiesin their socioeconomic development. However,prospective investors in CDM projects, host countriesand other CDM `stakeholders' might be expected toplace widely different priorities on achieving theseobjectives. This paper describes several factors thatwill affect investor interest in CDM projects, thecharacteristics of forest-based CDM projects that willattract investments, and an approach to identifyingprojects that meet the key objectives of multiplestakeholders. This approach entails identifyingsites, such as degraded watersheds, where CDMfinancing for forest conservation and restoration cangenerate readily monetizable local and regionalsocioeconomic benefits, while mitigating carbonemissions in forests with importance for conservingbiodiversity. 相似文献
8.
Recent interest in sustainable forest management planning in the Yukon has coincided with growing public awareness of climate
change, providing an opportunity to explore how forestry plans are incorporating climate change. In this paper, the Strategic
Forest Management Plans for the Champagne and Aishihik First Nations Traditional Territory (CATT) and the Teslin Tlingit Traditional
Territory (TTTT) are examined for evidence of adaptation to climate change. For each plan, management policies and practices
that are also recognized as ways to adapt to climate change are identified to provide information on the incremental costs
and benefits of additional adaptation efforts. A typology for classifying sustainable forest management plans according to
how they address climate change is proposed and applied to the CATT and TTTT plans. This typology, which may be useful to
any future retrospective assessments on how successful these or other sustainable forest management plans have been in addressing
and managing the risks posed by climate change, consists of a matrix that categorizes plans into one of four types; (1) proactive-direct,
(2) proactive-indirect, (3) reactive-direct, and (4) reactive-indirect. Neither of the plans available for the southern Yukon
explicitly identifies climate change vulnerabilities and actions that will be taken to reduce those vulnerabilities and manage
risks. However, both plans have incorporated some examples of ‘best management practices’ for sustainable forest management
that are also consistent with appropriate climate adaptation responses. Even in a jurisdiction facing rapid ecological changes
driven by climate change, where there is a relatively high level of awareness of climate change and its implications, forestry
planning processes have yet to grapple directly with the risks that climate change may pose to the ability of forest managers
to achieve the stated goals and objectives of sustainable forest management plans.
相似文献
J. L. InnesEmail: |
9.
Institutional adaptive capacity and climate change response in the Congo Basin forests of Cameroon 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
H. Carolyn Peach Brown Johnson Ndi Nkem Denis J. Sonwa Youssoufa Bele 《Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change》2010,15(3):263-282
Climate change presents additional challenges to a diverse country like Cameroon that shares the Congo Basin rainforest. Not
only is the population vulnerable to the direct effects of climate change, forest-dependent communities are also vulnerable
to changing environmental policy that may affect their access to forest resources. Using a qualitative approach to data collection
through semi-structured interviews and content analysis of relevant documents, the perception of decision-makers within, and
the response of the institutions of the state, the private sector and civil society to the complex challenges of climate change
in the Congo Basin forest of Cameroon were analysed. Results indicate that while decision-makers’ awareness of climate change
is high, a concrete institutional response is at a very early stage. Cameroon has low adaptive capacity that is further constrained
by weak linkages among government institutions nationally and between different levels of government and with communities.
Civil society institutions play a role in enhancing government capacity to respond, particularly in relation to new international
policies on climate change and forests. Adaptive capacity would be further enhanced by facilitating institutional linkages
and coordinating multilevel responses across all boundaries of government, private sector and civil society. A collaborative
capacity builder could foster the transfer, receipt and integration of knowledge across the networks, and ultimately build
long-term collaborative problem-solving capacity in Cameroon. 相似文献
10.
Charlotte Anne Nakakaawa Paul O. Vedeld Jens B. Aune 《Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change》2011,16(1):25-62
Using a map overlay procedure in a Geographical Information System environment, we quantify and map major land use and land
cover (LULC) change patterns in Uganda period 1990–2005 and determine whether the transitions were random or systematic. The
analysis reveals that the most dominant systematic land use change processes were deforestation (woodland to subsistence farmland—3.32%);
forest degradation (woodland to bushland (4.01%) and grassland (4.08%) and bush/grassland conversion to cropland (5.5%) all
resulting in a net reduction in forests (6.1%). Applying an inductive approach based on logistic regression and trend analyses
of observed changes we analyzed key drivers of LULC change. Significant predictors of forest land use change included protection
status, market access, poverty, slope, soil quality and presence/absence of a stream network. Market access, poverty and population
all decreased the log odds of retaining forests. In addition, poverty also increased the likelihood of degradation. An increase
in slope decreased the likelihood of deforestation. Using the stock change and gain/loss approaches we estimated the change
in forest carbon stocks and emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. Results indicate a negligible increase in
forest carbon stocks (3,260 t C yr-1) in the period 1990–2005 when compared to the emissions due to deforestation and forest
degradation (2.67 million t C yr-1). In light of the dominant forest land use change patterns, the drivers and change in carbon
stocks, we discuss options which could be pursued to implement a future national REDD plus strategy which considers livelihood,
biodiversity and climate change mitigation objectives. 相似文献
11.
Jonathan Haskett Bernhard Schlamadinger Sandra Brown 《Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change》2010,15(2):127-136
Climate change is occurring with greater speed and intensity that previously anticipated. All effective environmentally and
socially sound mitigation efforts need to be employed to effectively address this global crisis. Land Use, Land Use Change
and Forestry (LULUCF) projects can provide significant climate change mitigation benefits as well as poverty alleviation and
biodiversity conservation benefits. The policies of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU-ETS), the world’s largest
carbon market exclude LULUCF. Scientific support for this exclusion was presented in a briefing paper published by the Climate
Action Network—Europe (CAN) that puts forward the proposition that land based storage of carbon is ineffective. A careful
review of the scientific papers cited in support of CAN’s position indicates that, while the papers themselves are scientifically
sound, they do not support the continued exclusion of LULUCF projects from the EU-ETS. At the same time some important recent
research papers that describe the carbon storage and social benefit potential of such projects are not included in the analysis.
An in-depth consideration of the scientific evidence is necessary in evaluating this policy option. Based on this evidence
a case can be made for the inclusion of LULUCF projects in the EU-ETS. 相似文献
12.
Social wasps from temperate zones have clear annual colony cycles, and the young queens hibernate during winter. In the subtropics, the only previously reported evidence for the existence of “hibernation” is the facultative winter aggregations of females during harsh climate conditions. As in temperate-zone species analyzed so far, we show in this study that in the paper wasp, Polistes versicolor, a subtropical species, body size increases as an unfavorable season approaches. Our morphological studies indicate that larger females come from winter aggregations—that is, they are new queens. Multivariate analyses indicate that size is the only variable analyzed that shows a relationship to the differences. Given the absence of a harsh climate, we suggest that the occurrence of winter aggregations in tropical P. versicolor functions to allow some females to wait for better environmental conditions to start a new nest, rather than all being obliged to start a new nest as soon as they emerge. 相似文献
13.
With growing evidence on how climate change impacts human health, public health agencies should develop adaptation programs
focused on the impacts predicted to affect their jurisdictions. However, recent research indicates that public health agencies
in the United States have done little to prepare the public for predicted climate change impacts, largely due in response
to a lack of resources and priority. This study surveyed Environmental Health (EH) Directors across the United States to determine
the extent to which individual level attitudes and beliefs influence the adoption of climate change adaptation programming
in a department. The results indicate that an EH Director’s perception of the health risk posed by climate change explained
27% of the variance in the number of climate change impacts being addressed. Furthermore, the study found that environmental
attitude and political views made strong, unique contributions in explaining the variance in risk perception. The results
provide evidence that individual-level attitudes and beliefs, as well as organizational-level barriers influence the adoption
of climate change adaptation programs in public health agencies. As a result, increasing EH Directors’ perception of risk
by highlighting the likelihood and severity of localized impacts may increase the adoption of adaptation programming despite
existing organizational barriers (e.g., lack of resources). Given the fact that risk perception has been shown to influence
behavior across cultures, these findings are also useful for understanding the influence of individual decision makers on
public health programming around the world. 相似文献
14.
The article quantifies the size of ‘hidden’ social costs that are incurred by forestry offsets in the voluntary market that
promise to offset present emissions sometime in the future. It does this by estimating the difference between the social costs
of carbon (C) emitted and of costs offset by removal of C from the atmosphere by reforestation/afforestation. All current
attempts to make forestry offsets more reliable focus on quality control rather than the mismatch of the timing of emissions
and their offset. Recommendations that follow from the analysis are twofold. First, that markets for carbon dioxide equivalent
(CO2e) removals by voluntary offsets should be confined to the annual incremental removals actually achieved. Second, the
promoters of voluntary offsets projects should declare the annual stream of carbon credits and debits expected so that buyers
can place a present value on such projects. 相似文献
15.
Mitigation and adaptation synergy in forest sector 总被引:1,自引:1,他引:1
N. H. Ravindranath 《Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change》2007,12(5):843-853
Mitigation and adaptation are the two main strategies to address climate change. Mitigation and adaptation have been considered
separately in the global negotiations as well as literature. There is a realization on the need to explore and promote synergy
between mitigation and adaptation while addressing climate change. In this paper, an attempt is made to explore the synergy
between mitigation and adaptation by considering forest sector, which on the one hand is projected to be adversely impacted
under the projected climate change scenarios and on the other provide opportunities to mitigate climate change. Thus, the
potential and need for incorporating adaptation strategies and practices in mitigation projects is presented with a few examples.
Firstly, there is a need to ensure that mitigation programs or projects do not increase the vulnerability of forest ecosystems
and plantations. Secondly, several adaptation practices could be incorporated into mitigation projects to reduce vulnerability.
Further, many of the mitigation projects indeed reduce vulnerability and promote adaptation, for example; forest and biodiversity
conservation, protected area management and sustainable forestry. Also, many adaptation options such as urban forestry, soil
and water conservation and drought resistant varieties also contribute to mitigation of climate change. Thus, there is need
for research and field demonstration of synergy between mitigation and adaptation, so that the cost of addressing climate
change impacts can be reduced and co-benefits increased. 相似文献
16.
Reinhard Mechler Stefan Hochrainer Asbjørn Aaheim Håkon Salen Anita Wreford 《Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change》2010,15(7):737-762
Adaptation to climate change in Europe has only recently become a true policy concern with the management of extreme events
one priority item. Irrespective of future climatic changes increasing the need for systematic evaluation and management of
extremes, weather-related disasters already today pose substantial burdens for households, businesses and governments. Research
in the ADAM project identified substantial direct risks in terms of potential crop and asset losses due to combined drought
and heatwave, as well as flood hazards in Southern and Eastern Europe, respectively. This paper focuses on the indirect, medium
to longer term economic risks triggered by the direct risks and mediated by policy responses. We present a selection of three
economic impact and adaptation assessments and modelling studies undertaken on extreme event adaptation in Europe. Responding
to a need for more economically based adaptation assessments, we address some relatively unresearched issues such as the understanding
of past adaptation, the role of market response to impacts as well as government’s ability to plan for and share out extreme
event risks. The first analysis undertakes an empirical exploration of observed impacts and adaptation in the agricultural
sector in the UK comparing the impact of consecutive extreme events over time in order to determine whether adaptation has
occurred in the past and whether this can be used to inform future estimates of adaptation rates. We find that farmers and
the agricultural sector clearly have adapted to extreme events over time, but whether this rate can be maintained into the
future is unclear, as some autonomous adaptation enacted seemed rather easy to be taken. Markets may mediate or amplify impacts
and in the second analysis, we use an economic general equilibrium model to assess the economic effects of a reduction in
agricultural production due to drought and heatwave risk in exposed regions in Spain. The analysis suggests that modelled
losses to the local economy are more serious in a large-scale scenario when neighbouring provinces are also affected by drought
and heatwave events. This is due to the supply-side induced price increase leading to some passing on of disaster costs to
consumers. The simulation highlights the importance of paying particular attention to the spatial and distributional effects
weather extremes and possibly changes therein induced by climate change may incur. Finally, we discuss how national governments
may better plan their disaster liabilities resulting from a need to manage relief and reconstruction activities post event.
We do so using a risk based economic planning model assessing the fiscal consequences associated with the coping with natural
extremes. We identify large weather-related disaster contingent liabilities, particularly in the key flood hot spot countries
Austria, Romania, and Hungary. Such substantial disaster liabilities (“hidden disaster deficits”) when interacting with weak
fiscal conditions may lead to substantial additional stress on government budgets and reduced fiscal space for funding other
relevant public investment projects. Overall, our paper suggests the importance of respecting the specific spatial and temporal
characteristics of extreme event risk when generating information on adaptation decisions. As our adaptation decisions considered,
such as using sovereign risk financing instruments are associated with a rather short time horizon, the analysis largely focuses
on the management of today’s extreme events and does not discuss in detail projections of risks into a future with climate
change. Such projections raise important issues of uncertainty, which in some instances may actually render future projections
non-robust, a constraint to be kept in mind when addressing longer term decisions, which at the same time should account for
both climate and also socioeconomic change. 相似文献
17.
Consistency and comparability of estimation and accounting of removal by sinks in afforestation/reforestation activities 总被引:1,自引:1,他引:0
Viorel Blujdea David Neil Bird Carmenza Robledo 《Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change》2010,15(1):1-18
The Kyoto Protocol accounting system and its market mechanisms, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation
(JI), are built on the key principle that emission and emission reduction units generated by afforestation/reforestation activities
under national systems and projects are fully comparable, no matter their origin. Lack of consistency in the quality of emission
and emission reduction units can undermine the environmental integrity of the climate stabilization actions. Therefore, it
is the ambition that units generated in the land-use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) sector are of similar quality
with those from non-LULUCF sectors. In this paper, the authors pose the question of whether there is full estimation and accounting
consistency between Annex I Party’s national GHG systems and CDM projects methodologies in the LULUCF sector, in terms accuracy,
completeness, levels of uncertainty and permanence risk. We focus on methodological aspects related to the applicability and
practicability of using approved afforestation/reforestation CDM methodologies; estimation, reporting and accounting rules;
the small pools and sources issue, uncertainty of removal estimate; leakage and handling of non-permanence risk. We conclude
that there is significant scope for improving the consistency of greenhouse gas emission accounting from land use activities
in the post-2012 climate change agreement, between Annex I domestic and project activities. As well, we conclude that the
preparation and implementation of project activities has to be made simpler by a project framework guideline, which is then
adapted to any project circumstances. 相似文献
18.
Phil Cottle 《Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change》2007,12(1):181-201
The author uses his own data gleaned from over 10 years of commercial forestry insurance across the world to propose that
despite a low intrinsic fire risk across most of Southeast Asia, especially Indonesia, commercial fire losses are unacceptably
high, and could be reduced substantially within the current financial legal and political framework within which forestry
companies operate.
Opening with a statement about the dearth of forest fire loss data in the commercial sector, it is observed that the consequent
inability of general insurers to estimate the rate of fire loss leads to very low insurance participation in forestry within
Indonesia. A summary is then provided of the financial and environmental benefits of insurance participation in commercial
forestry were this situation to be changed.
A short discussion on risk perceptions is introduced to make the point that without reliable commercial forest fire loss data,
risk perceptions of fire exposure in Southeast Asia by the financial sector, including insurers, is a barrier to risk transfer
and investment. While real fire risk and perceived fire risk for Indonesia seem at present to be in agreement, the paper challenges
that this should the case.
Comparisons are made with different parts of the world with the knowledge that, in commercial terms, plantations in the low
latitudes behave similarly everywhere in terms of fire causes, fire propagation factors, and characteristics of plantation
or managed mixed forest fires. A review of the fire sizes within commercial forests is a good indicator of the efficiency
of fire management strategies, and profiles from a high fire risk territory and Indonesia are compared.
Using commercial and unidentified data the author then demonstrates that commercial growers in Indonesia have a high annual
rate of forest fire loss and may also have a significant catastrophe fire exposure. This ‘cat’ exposure is far greater than
for equivalent plantations in clearly higher fire risk environments. These conclusions are and should be discussed with forestry
companies to change attitude and investment levels.
Practical points for improved plantation fire management are made along with comments about the resources required. A parallel
discussion then reviews fire risk assessment and management by the insurers to prevent their own ‘forest fire’ losses if they
are to get further involved with the provision of Indonesian commercial forest risk transfer. The explanation of how insurers
price risk within a portfolio helps identify the specific data needed for a proper risk management strategy to be developed. 相似文献
19.
Diapause in arthropods is a physiological state of dormancy that is generally thought to promote survival during harsh seasons
and dispersal, but it may also serve to avoid predation in space and time. Here, we show that predation-related odours induce
diapause in female adult spider mites. We argue that this response allows them to move into an area where they are free of
enemies, yet forced to survive without food. Spider mites are specialised leaf feeders, but—in late summer—they experience
severe predation on leaves. Hence, they face a dilemma: to stay on the leaf and risk being eaten or to move away from the
leaf and risk death from starvation and thirst. Female two-spotted spider mites solve this dilemma by dramatically changing
their physiology when exposed to predation-associated cues. This allows them to disperse away from leaves and to survive in
winter refuges in the bark of trees or in the soil. We conclude that the mere presence of predation-associated cues causes
some herbivorous mites to seek refuge, thereby retarding the growth rate of the population as a whole: a trait-mediated indirect
effect that may have consequences for the stability of predator–prey systems and for ecosystem structure. 相似文献
20.
Ann Ingerson 《Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change》2011,16(3):307-323
Within national greenhouse gas inventories, many countries now use widely-accepted methodologies to track carbon that continues
to be stored in wood products and landfills after its removal from the forest. Beyond simply tracking post-harvest wood carbon,
expansion of this pool has further been suggested as a potential climate change mitigation strategy. This paper summarizes
data on the fate of carbon through the wood processing chain and on greenhouse gas emissions generated by processing, transport,
use and disposal of wood. As a result of wood waste and decomposition, the carbon stored long-term in harvested wood products
may be a small proportion of that originally stored in the standing trees—across the United States approximately 1% may remain
in products in-use and 13% in landfills at 100 years post-harvest. Related processing and transport emissions may in some
cases approach the amount of CO2e stored in long-lived solid wood products. Policies that promote wood product carbon storage as a climate mitigation strategy
must assess full life-cycle impacts, address accounting uncertainties, and balance multiple public values derived from forests. 相似文献