Lake fish as the main contributor of internal dose to lakeshore residents in the Chernobyl contaminated area

Two field expeditions in 1996 studied 137Cs intake patterns and its content in the bodies of adult residents from the village Kozhany in the Bryansk region, Russia, located on the shore of a drainless peat lake in an area subjected to significant radioactive contamination after the 1986 Chernobyl accident. The 137Cs contents in lake water and fish were two orders of magnitude greater than in local rivers and flow-through lakes, 10 years after Chernobyl radioactive contamination, and remain stable. The 137Cs content in lake fish and a mixture of forest mushrooms was between approximately 10-20 kBq/kg, which exceeded the temporary Russian permissible levels for these products by a factor of 20-40. Consumption of lake fish gave the main contribution to internal doses (40-50%) for Kozhany village inhabitants Simple countermeasures, such as Prussian blue doses for dairy cows and pre-boiling mushrooms and fish before cooking, halved the 137Cs internal dose to inhabitants, even 10 years after the radioactive fallout.     

Actinide analysis of a depleted uranium penetrator from a 1999 target site in southern Serbia

Following the detection of 236U in depleted uranium (DU) ammunition used during the Balkans conflict in the 1990s, concern has been expressed about the possibility that other nuclides from the nuclear fuel cycle and, in particular, transuranium nuclides, might be present in this type of ammunition. In this paper, we report the results of uranium and plutonium analyses carried out on a depleted uranium penetrator recovered from a target site in southern Serbia. Our data show the depleted nature of the uranium and confirm the presence of trace amounts of plutonium in the penetrator. The activity concentration of (239+240)PU, at 45.4+/-0.7 Bq kg(-1), is the highest reported to date for any penetrator recovered from the Balkans. This concentration, however, is comparable to that expected to be present naturally in uranium ores and, from a radiological perspective, would only give rise to a very small increase in dose to exposed persons compared to that from the DU itself.     

Particle resuspension: A review

Published numerical values of resuspension variables, rates, factors, and weathering half-lives are summarized. Results of the review show the great uncertainty in accurately predicting resuspension. Resuspension rates range over six orders of magnitude from 10^?12 to 10^?4 fraction/sec, resuspension factors over nine orders of magnitude from 10^?10 to over 10^?2 m^?1, and weathering half-lives from 35 days to years. Data are yet needed to evaluate resuspension changes as a function of pollutant particle properties, including chemical composition, solubility, and shape.     

137Cs concentration in meat of wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Croatia a decade and half after the Chernobyl accident

Gamma-spectrometric measurements of 137Cs activities in meat of wild boars collected in Croatia at several locations with different levels of 137Cs contamination are presented. Samples were collected during the period between 2000 and 2002, about 15 years after the Chernobyl accident. 137Cs concentrations ranged over three orders of magnitude: 0.4-611.5 Bq kg(-1). On the basis of these results, 137Cs concentrations at researched areas could be categorized into three groups: (i) the area of Slavonski Brod, Lipik and Slunj with 137Cs concentrations in meat of only a few Bq kg(-1); (ii) the area of Vrbovsko and Sirac with 137Cs concentrations of a few tens of Bq kg(-1); and (iii) the Fuzine area with 137Cs values in wild boar meat of a few hundreds of Bq kg(-1). In areas with approximately equal contamination level, 137Cs concentrations in wild boar meat varied over two orders of magnitude. This fact suggests that the main reason for high 137Cs values in wild boar meat could be due to food consumed by wild boars, and only secondarily in contamination level of area where they live. Intensive mushroom consumption during autumn months could be one of the factors responsible for high 137Cs values in wild boar meat. An average dose arising from 137Cs due to ingestion of wild boar meat in Croatia is below radiological health concern except in the area of Fuzine, and only in cases of high annual wild boar meat intake, probably by hunters or members of their families.     

Cesium-137 in grass from Chernobyl fallout

Grass ecosystem was monitored for 137Cs, a relatively long-lived radionuclide, for about 16 years since the Chernobyl reactor accident occurred on April 26, 1986. Cesium-137 in grass gramineae or poaceae the species, ranged from 122.9 Bq kg(-1) (September 4, 1986) to 5.8 mBq kg(-1) (October 16, 2001) that is a range of five orders of magnitude. It was observed that there was a trend of decreasing 137Cs with time reflecting a removal half-time of 40 months (3 1/3 years), which is the ecological half-life, T(ec) of 137Cs in grassland.     

长江上游不同地形条件下的土地利用/覆盖变化

基于1〖DK〗∶10万的1980、2000和2005年的土地利用/覆盖数据和90 m分辨率的DEM数据,采用转移概率矩阵和地形 面积频度方法,分析了1980~2005年长江上游地区不同地形因子条件下的土地利用/覆盖变化。结果表明：1）1980~2000年,草地、林地和农业用地面积变化趋势与2000~2005年相反。后5 a,可能由于退耕的土地出现反弹现象增多,草地和林地面积出现缩减而农业用地面积增加。两个分析时段主要的土地利用/覆盖类型变化趋势类似,包括农业用地向林地和草地的转化,林地向农业用地的转化以及草地向裸地的转化。2）农业用地和城镇用地主要分布于低海拔区而林地、草地则主要分布于高海拔区。低海拔区主要是退耕还林和城市化过程。高海拔区主要是林地的退化消失和草地退化沙化过程。3）农业用地在坡度段10~25°所占面积比例最大。林地用地面积比例随坡度变陡呈现规则递增,城镇用地分布趋势与之相反。近年裸地趋向分布于缓坡区。坡度0~5°的区域主要是草地退化沙化过程;5~10°坡度段主要是退耕还林过程;大于10°的区域造林工程与森林退化并存。4）各种土地利用/覆盖类型对不同坡向的适宜性相差不大。各种坡向上土地利用/覆盖类型变化类似.     

Patterns and inventories of radioactive contamination of island sites of the Yenisey River, Russia

The distribution of radioactive contamination at three island sites downstream from the Krasnoyarsk Mining and Chemical Combine (KMCC) was studied with the objectives of mapping contamination levels, interpreting radionuclide distributions through consideration of alluvial processes and determining radionuclide inventories. Contamination was measured using in situ gamma spectrometry and landforms characterised using topographic surveying methods. Maximum (137)Cs contamination densities (700 kBq m(-2)) were found on low- and middle-level floodplains and low-lying interconnecting areas of Beriozovy Island (16 km from the KMCC). On Mikhin Island (180 km from the KMCC) maximum total (60)Co, (152)Eu and (154)Eu activity concentrations (30-40 kBq m(-2)) occur in low-lying areas inundated during flooding. Maximum (137)Cs and total (60)Co, (152)Eu and (154)Eu contamination densities on Cheriomukhov Island (250 km from the KMCC) were 390 and 50 kBq m(-2), respectively. Estimated (137)Cs inventories were 145, 148 and 16GBq for Beriozovy, Mikhin and Cheriomukhov Islands, respectively.     

Radioactive contamination of wood and its products

This paper presents research on radioactive contamination of the three most common kinds of wood in Croatia--beech, oak and fir as well as acorn. Gamma-spectrometric measurements carried out on the samples of bark and wood of beech, oak, fir and acorn have shown radioactivity contents ranging from 1.6 +/- 0.1 to 37.3 +/- 0.5 Bq/kg from deposited 137Cs, whose concentrations in the soil of Croatia have increased after the Chernobyl accident. Measurements have also shown the radioactivity originating from 40K and 214Bi, which are part of the natural composition of the soil. The distribution of the radionuclides in wood has been discussed, as well as the impact of radioactive contamination of wood by the artificial radionuclide 137Cs upon the forest ecosystem. According to the corresponding model, it has been calculated that a 10 h daily stay in a typical family house increases the annual radiation dose of the population, due to the deposited 137Cs in the structure or furniture, by 343 microSv.     

A comparison of 90Sr and 137Cs uptake in plants via three pathways at two Chernobyl-contaminated sites

Foliar absorption of resuspended 90Sr, root uptake and contamination adhering to leaf surfaces (i.e. soil loading) were compared at two Chernobyl-contaminated sites, Chistogalovka and Polesskoye. Although foliar absorption of resuspended 90Sr was quantifiable, its contribution amounted to less than 10% of the plants' total, above-ground contamination. Root uptake was 200 times greater than foliar absorption at the near-field site of Chistogalovka and eight times greater at Polesskoye, where the fallout consisted of the more soluble condensation-type, rather than fuel particles. Strontium's bioavailability exceeded that of 137Cs (analyzed in the same plants) by orders of magnitude when compared using concentration ratios. Simplistic, cumulative effective dose calculations for humans ingesting 90Sr- and 137Cs-contaminated plants revealed that the dose at Chistogalovka was greater from 90Sr (185 mSv vs. 3 mSv from 137Cs), while at Polesskoye the dose from 137Cs (66 mSv) was 30 times greater than from 90Sr (2 mSv).     

Quantifying 137Cs aggregated transfer coefficients in a semi-natural woodland ecosystem adjacent to a nuclear reprocessing facility

Radiocaesium (137Cs) activity concentrations and aggregated transfer factors (Tag values) were calculated for vascular plants, fungal fruiting bodies and invertebrates in a semi-natural Picea sitchensis woodland (Lady Wood) adjacent to the British Nuclear Fuels plc. reprocessing facility at Sellafield, Cumbria, UK. The Tag values for vascular plants ranged from 7.1 x 10(-4) - 1.9 x 10(-2) m2 kg(-1), the maximum value being for Pteridium aquilinum. Fungal fruiting bodies had higher Tag values (1.9 x 10(-3) - 1.8 x 10(-1) m2 kg(-1)) than vascular plants, with a maximum value for Mycena galericulata. None of the activity concentrations for edible foodstuffs collected within this study (fungi and berries) exceeded the EC recommended limits of 137Cs in foodstuffs grown within the UK. The invertebrate community sampled during the study had Tag values ranging from 3.4 x 10(-4) to 1.3 x 10(-2) m2 kg(-1). There were no systematic differences in 137Cs activity concentration between invertebrate guilds, or between seasonal cohorts within guilds. The invertebrates in Lady Wood were exposed to a dose from 137Cs (internal gamma + beta and external gamma) ranging between 4.37 x 10(-4) and 6.40 x 10(-4) mGy day(-1). Including dose from radionuclides other than 137Cs and accounting for uncertainties due to the relative biological effectiveness of differing radionuclides could increase total dose by approximately an order of magnitude. These dose rates are at least three orders of magnitude lower than the 1 mGy d(-1) level at which harm may be caused to terrestrial biota, hence the risk to the invertebrate community from the effects of ionising radiation in Lady Wood is low.     

Radioisotope contaminations from releases of the Tomsk-Seversk nuclear facility (Siberia, Russia)

Soils have been sampled in the vicinity of the Tomsk-Seversk facility (Siberia, Russia) that allows us to measure radioactive contaminations due to atmospheric and aquatic releases. Indeed soils exhibit large inventories of man-made fission products including 137Cs (ranging from 33,000 to 68,500 Bq m(-2)) and actinides such as plutonium (i.e. 239+240Pu from 420 to 5900 Bq m(-2)) or 241Am (160-1220 Bq m(-2)). Among all sampling sites, the bank of the Romashka channel exhibits the highest radioisotope concentrations. At this site, some short half-life gamma emitters were detected as well indicating recent aquatic discharge in the channel. In comparison, soils that underwent atmospheric depositions like peat and forest soils exhibit lower activities of actinides and 137Cs. Soil activities are too high to be related solely to global fallout and thus the source of plutonium must be discharges from the Siberian Chemical Combine (SCC) plant. This is confirmed by plutonium isotopic ratios measured by ICP-MS; the low 241Pu/239Pu and 240Pu/239Pu atomic ratios with respect to global fallout ratio or civil nuclear fuel are consistent with weapons grade signatures. Up to now, the influence of Tomsk-Seversk plutonium discharges was speculated in the Ob River and its estuary. Isotopic data from the present study show that plutonium measured in SCC probably constitutes a significant source of plutonium in the aquatic environment, together with plutonium from global fallout and other contaminated sites including Tomsk, Mayak (Russia) and Semipalatinsk (Republic of Kazakhstan). It is estimated that the proportion of plutonium from SCC source can reach 45% for 239Pu and 60% for 241Pu in the sediments.     

Assessment of current exposure levels in different population groups of the Kola Peninsula

Activity concentrations of 137Cs and 90Sr in samples of vegetation and natural food products collected in the Kola Peninsula in 1998 and 1999 indicate a very slow decrease in contamination levels during the last decade, mainly due to the physical decay of the radionuclides. The activity concentrations of 137Cs in reindeer meat decreased with a half-life of about 9 years. 137Cs in lichen, moss and fungi is significantly higher than in natural vegetation (grasses) and agricultural plants (potatoes). The activity concentrations of 137Cs in reindeer meat were two orders of magnitude higher than those in locally produced beef and pork. Consumption of reindeer meat, fish, mushrooms and berries constituted the main contribution to the internal dose from 137Cs and 90Sr for reindeer-breeders in the Lovozero area. The estimated committed doses due to 137Cs intake in this group were about 10 microSv per month in summer 1998 and 15 microSv per month in winter, 1999. There was good agreement between internal dose estimates based on intake assessment and whole body measurements. The population of Umba settlement, which is not involved in reindeer breeding, received individual committed doses due to 137Cs intake of about 0.5 microSv per month, about a factor of 20 less than the reindeer-breeders in Lovozero. In this case, the main contribution to the internal dose of the general population came from consumption the of 137Cs in mushrooms and forest berries. The contribution of 90Sr to the internal dose varied from 1% to 5% in the different population groups studied.     

Radioecological consequences of radioactive discharges into the Techa River on the Southern Urals

The sources and levels of radioactive contamination of the Techa River are analyzed. Dose assessments are made for humams and biota. The highest radionuclide concentrations in the river water were observed in the period 1950–1951. In 1951, at a distance of 78 km from the site of radioactive discharges, the content of ⁹⁰Sr in the water was 2.7 × 10⁴ Bq l⁻¹ and that of ¹³⁷Cs was 7.5 × 10³ Bq l⁻¹. Subsequently, the radionuclide activity in the river water decreased considerably. In the period 1991–1994, the average annual content of ⁹⁰Sr in the water varied between 6 and 20 Bq l⁻¹. The average annual content of ¹³⁷Cs in the river water varied from 0.06 to 0.23 Bq l⁻¹, i.e. was lower than that of ⁹⁰Sr approximately by two orders of magnitude. The concentration of ^239,240Pu in the water varied between 0.004 and 0.019 Bq l⁻¹. The radioactive contamination of the Techa floodplain is highly nonuniform. With increasing distance from the river sources, the contamination density of the floodplain decreases, remaining, however, considerably higher than the background values.At present, the average annual dose rates in contaminated areas are (0.1–2) × 10⁻³ Sv year⁻¹, which is considerably lower than in the periods of ‘acute’ exposure (1950–1951). The doses to aquatic biota were much higher than those to humans.     

Test of existing mathematical models for atmospheric resuspension of radionuclides

Atmospheric resuspension of radionuclides can be a secondary source of contamination after a release has stopped, as well as a source of contamination for people and areas not exposed to the original release. A test scenario based on measurements collected after the Chernobyl accident was used to evaluate existing mathematical models for contaminant resuspension from soil, to examine resuspension processes on both local and regional scales, and to investigate the importance of seasonal variations of these processes. Model predictions from 15 participants were compared with measured air concentrations and resuspension factors to investigate and explain the discrepancies both among model predictions and between model predictions and observations and thus to evaluate the predictive capabilities and drawbacks of commonly used generic resuspension models. The empirical models tested can give predictions within an order of magnitude of observations or better if adequately calibrated for site-specific conditions, but they do not describe the process-level events or account for spatial heterogeneity or temporal variations.     

Plutonium isotopes in the lower reaches of the River Rhône over the period 1945-2000: fluxes towards the Mediterranean Sea and sedimentary inventories

Plutonium isotopes in the Rh?ne River originate from both the weathering of the catchment basin contaminated by global atmospheric fallout, and the liquid effluents released from the Marcoule reprocessing plant since 1961. Due to a new treatment process applied to the liquid effluents, a decrease of two orders of magnitude in the industrial plutonium discharged into the River Rh?ne has been registered from 1991. Today, 238Pu industrial inputs to the River Rh?ne are still about 10 times higher than those derived from global fallout, while 239+240Pu inputs from industrial and global fallout sources are of similar importance, i.e. 1 GBq y(-1). Our results indicate that the river sedimentary compartment act either as a sink or a delayed-source term of plutonium for the freshwaters depending on the hydraulic regime and flood events. This compartment may then represent an important industrial delayed-source term for the River Rh?ne freshwaters in the coming years as the Marcoule reprocessing plant is being dismantled. These results were obtained from samples collected from the lower course of the River Rh?ne over the 1987-1998 period and analysed for 238Pu and 239+240Pu activities. Both river sedimentary inventories of plutonium isotopes and effective outputs from the River Rh?ne towards the Gulf of Lions have been estimated for each year over the 1945-2000 period. Regarding 239+240Pu, the sedimentary inventory accumulated since 1945 is estimated to be 172+/-35 GBq. If mobile, this amount represents a significant delayed-source term of plutonium on the scale of the Rh?ne watershed.     

Quantitative assessment of the long term behaviour of 90Sr in Lake Uruskul,Southern Urals,Russia

The present paper is aimed at assessing the long term behaviour of 90Sr migration from water to bottom sediments of Lake Uruskul, Southern Urals, Russia. The lake was contaminated following the nuclear accident at the Mayak nuclear complex in 1957 (the Kyshtym accident). Some transfer parameters relevant to the behaviour of 90Sr in the water-sediment system were evaluated: a) the radionuclide migration velocity from the water column to the bottom sediment, b) the radionuclide migration rate from bottom sediment to water, and c) the radionuclide migration rate from bottom sediment to deep sediment. The estimated values of the above parameters were 6.4 x 10(-1) m s(-1), 5.7 x 10(-10) s(-1) and 5.2 x 10(-10) s(-1), respectively. These values were compared with data obtained for some Italian lakes contaminated by 90Sr after the nuclear weapons tests fallout. The relatively low radionuclide migration from water to sediment of these lakes is reflected by the values of the ratio migration velocity/migration rate from sediment to water (4 m and 12 m) that are significantly lower than the corresponding value in the Russian lake (112 m). The peculiar hydrochemical conditions of Lake Uruskul (high pH, high mineralisation, etc.) are considered to be responsible for the high radionuclide migration from water to sediment.     

A prognostic estimation of the area contaminated with alpha-emitting transuranium isotopes in Belarus following the Chernobyl accident

As a result of the Chernobyl accident, some regions of Belarus have been contaminated with the plutonium isotopes (238,239,240,241)Pu. Considering the importance of the environmental impact of the alpha-emitting radionuclides we have carried out a prognostic estimation of the area contaminated with (238,239,240)Pu and (241)Am (the latter being a decay product of (241)Pu) in Belarus. The calculations were made using measurements of (238,239,240)Pu activity concentrations in soil samples from about 600 settlements in the affected region, together with the estimated activity ratio A((241)Am)/A((238,239,240)Pu). The area contaminated with alpha-emitting transuranium isotopes predicted for the year 2006 has been compared with that estimated for 1986. The results show that by 2006, the area of inhabited districts where contamination with (238,239,240)Pu and (241)Am exceeds the threshold level of 740 Bq/m(2), will be 3.7 times larger, reaching approximately 3.5 x10(3)km(2). Of this, almost 20% will have a contamination level of 1850--3700 Bq/m(2).     

Plutonium contamination from accidental release or simply fallout: study of soils at Palomares (Spain)

The activity concentration of plutonium in an environmental sample does not usually constitute sufficient information to determine if it is due only to fallout. Alpha and gamma spectrometry are used here conjointly in the study of environmental soil samples to distinguish between samples showing plutonium contamination due to fallout exclusively, and samples contaminated with plutonium from another source. The method was applied to soil samples collected in Palomares (Spain), where an accidental release of aerosols contaminated with plutonium occurred. The two contributions (fallout and accidentally released plutonium) were separated by means of the activity ratios between various radionuclides present in the samples analyzed. The fallout level was estimated from the 239 + 240Pu/137Cs activity ratio. For samples showing contamination due to the accident, the 238Pu/239 + 240Pu and 239Pu/240Pu activity ratios were also calculated to determine the grade of plutonium of this contamination.     

Surface ground contamination and soil vertical distribution of 137Cs around two underground nuclear explosion sites in the Asian Arctic, Russia

Vertical distributions of 137Cs have been determined in vegetation-soil cores obtained from 30 different locations around two underground nuclear explosion sites--"Crystal" (event year - 1974) and "Kraton-3" (event year - 1978) in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Russia. In 2001-2002, background levels of 137Cs surface contamination densities on control forest plots varied from 0.73 to 0.97 kBq m(-2) with an average of 0.84+/-0.10 kBq m(-2) and a median of 0.82 kBq m(-2). 137Cs ground contamination densities at the "Crystal" site ranged from 1.3 to 64 kBq m(-2); the activity gradually decreased with distance from the borehole. For "Kraton-3", residual surface contamination density of radiocaesium varied drastically from 1.7 to 6900 kBq m(-2); maximal 137Cs depositions were found at a "decontaminated" plot. At all forest plots, radiocaesium activity decreased throughout the whole vertical soil profile. Vertical distributions of 137Cs in soil for the majority of the plots sampled (n=18) can be described using a simple exponential function. Despite the fact that more than 20 years have passed since the main fallout events, more than 80% of the total deposited activity was found in the first 5 cm of the vegetation-soil cores from most of the forested landscapes. The low annual temperatures, clay-rich soil type with neutral pH, and presence of thick lichen-moss carpet are the factors which may hinder 137Cs transport down the soil profile.