The use of olfaction in the foraging behaviour of the golden-mantled flying fox,<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Pteropus pumilus</Emphasis>, and the greater musky fruit bat,<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Ptenochirus jagori</Emphasis> (Megachiroptera: Pteropodidae)

Double-choice experiments with three adult males of the little golden-mantled flying fox, Pteropus pumilus, and ten adult greater musky fruit bats, Ptenochirus jagori (both Megachiroptera: Pteropodidae), demonstrate that they are able to discriminate accurately between an empty dish and a dish containing fruits of one of several species by odour alone. Tests were run using fruits of six fruit species for Pteropus pumilus and five fruit species for Ptenochirus jagori. The fruit species used are known to be consumed in the wild by Ptenochirus jagori and are, with two exceptions, species of the natural rain-forest habitat. This is the first study to show that fruit bats are also able to assess the ripeness of a fruit exclusively by its odour. The bats preferred ripe over unripe fruits of the same species. Thus, both Pteropus pumilus and Ptenochirus jagori can not only locate fruits by their odour but can also discriminate between ripe and unripe fruits of the same species by olfaction. The results confirm and expand earlier findings on the role of olfactory cues in the orientation of foraging pteropodids.     

Non-random nectar unloading interactions between foragers and their receivers in the honeybee hive

Nectar acquisition in the honeybee Apis mellifera is a partitioned task in which foragers gather nectar and bring it to the hive, where nest mates unload via trophallaxis (i.e. mouth-to-mouth transfer) the collected food for further storage. Because forager mates exploit different feeding places simultaneously, this study addresses the question of whether nectar unloading interactions between foragers and hive-bees are established randomly, as it is commonly assumed. Two groups of foragers were trained to exploit a different scented food source for 5 days. We recorded their trophallaxes with hive-mates, marking the latter ones according to the forager group they were unloading. We found non-random probabilities for the occurrence of trophallaxes between experimental foragers and hive-bees, instead, we found that trophallactic interactions were more likely to involve groups of individuals which had formerly interacted orally. We propose that olfactory cues present in the transferred nectar promoted the observed bias, and we discuss this bias in the context of the organization of nectar acquisition: a partitioned task carried out in a decentralized insect society.     

Microbial production of primary metabolites

Microbial production of primary metabolites contributes significantly to the quality of life. Through fermentation, microorganisms growing on inexpensive carbon sources can produce valuable products such as amino acids, nucleotides, organic acids, and vitamins which can be added to food to enhance its flavor or increase its nutritive value. The contribution of microorganisms will go well beyond the food industry with the renewed interest in solvent fermentations. Microorganisms have the potential to provide many petroleum-derived products as well as the ethanol necessary for liquid fuel. The role of primary metabolites and the microbes which produce them will certainly increase in importance.     

Keeping the blood flowing—plasminogen activator genes and feeding behavior in vampire bats

The blood feeding vampire bats emerged from New World leaf-nosed bats that fed on fruit and insects. Plasminogen activator, a serine protease that regulates blood coagulation, is known to be expressed in the saliva of Desmodus rotundus (common vampire bat) and is thought to be a key enzyme for the emergence of blood feeding in vampire bats. To better understand the evolution of this biological function, we studied the plasminogen activator (PA) genes from all vampire bat species in light of their feeding transition to bird and subsequently mammalian blood. We include the rare species Diphylla ecaudata and Diaemus youngi, where plasminogen activator had not previously been studied and demonstrate that PA gene duplication observed in Desmodus is not essential to the vampire phenotype, but relates to the emergence of predominant mammalian blood feeding in this species. Plasminogen activator has evolved through gene duplication, domain loss, and sequence evolution leading to change in fibrin-specificity and susceptibility to plasminogen activator inhibitor-1. Before undertaking this study, only the four plasminogen activator isoforms from Desmodus were known. The evolution of vampire bat plasminogen activators can now be linked phylogenetically to the transition in feeding behavior among vampire bat species from bird to mammalian blood. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Frugivory is associated with low measures of plasma oxidative stress and high antioxidant concentration in free-ranging bats

Oxidative stress—an imbalance between reactive pro- and neutralising antioxidants—damages cell structures and impairs fitness-relevant traits such as longevity and reproduction. Theory predicts that feeding on diets with high antioxidant content such as fruits should reduce oxidative stress; however, there is no support of this idea in free-ranging mammals. Bats cover a large variety of ecological niches, and therefore, we asked if measures of oxidative stress are lower in species with fruit diets. We measured reactive oxygen metabolites (ROM) representing total pro-oxidants produced and antioxidants in the plasma of 33 Neotropical bat species. Species with a fruit diet showed the lowest level of ROM and the highest concentration of antioxidants, followed by omnivorous and animalivorous species. Potentially, frugivorous species ingest more antioxidants with food and thus are able to neutralise more pro-oxidants than species not feeding on fruits, resulting in an overall lower level of oxidative stress. We therefore showed for the first time that measures of oxidative stress vary according to diets in free-ranging mammals.     

Yellowjackets (Vespula pensylvanica) thermoregulate in response to changes in protein concentration

Social insects can modulate body temperature to increase foraging efficiency; however, little is known about how the relative value of protein resources affects forager body temperature. Such regulation may be important given that colony growth is often limited by protein availability. In this paper, we present what are, to our knowledge, the first data for social insects showing that thoracic temperatures (T (th)) of foragers increase with the protein content of food resources. In an introduced population of western yellowjacket (Vespula pensylvanica), we measured T (th) of foragers collecting high-quality protein (100% canned chicken) and low-quality protein (50% canned chicken, 50% indigestible alpha-cellulose by volume) at different ambient air temperatures (T (a)). Wasps foraging on 100% chicken consistently exhibited higher T (th) compared to wasps foraging on 50% chicken. After correcting for T (a), the mean T (th) for wasps collecting 100% chicken were 1.98 degrees C higher than those of individuals collecting 50% chicken. We suggest that this mechanism may increase foraging efficiency in this and other social wasp species.     

Ignoring the irrelevant: auditory tolerance of audible but innocuous sounds in the bat-detecting ears of moths

Noctuid moths listen for the echolocation calls of hunting bats and respond to these predator cues with evasive flight. The African bollworm moth, Helicoverpa armigera, feeds at flowers near intensely singing cicadas, Platypleura capensis, yet does not avoid them. We determined that the moth can hear the cicada by observing that both of its auditory receptors (A1 and A2 cells) respond to the cicada's song. The firing response of the A1 cell rapidly adapts to the song and develops spike periods in less than a second that are in excess of those reported to elicit avoidance flight to bats in earlier studies. The possibility also exists that for at least part of the day, sensory input in the form of olfaction or vision overrides the moth's auditory responses. While auditory tolerance appears to allow H. armigera to exploit a food resource in close proximity to acoustic interference, it may render their hearing defence ineffective and make them vulnerable to predation by bats during the evening when cicadas continue to sing. Our study describes the first field observation of an eared insect ignoring audible but innocuous sounds.     

Greenhouse gas balances of molasses based ethanol in Nepal

This paper evaluates life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) balances in production and use of molasses-based ethanol (EtOH) in Nepal. The total life cycle emissions of EtOH is estimated at 432.5 kgCO_2eq m⁻³ ethanol (i.e. 20.4 gCO_2eq MJ⁻¹). Avoided emissions are 76.6% when conventional gasoline is replaced by molasses derived ethanol. A sensitivity analysis was performed to verify the impact of variations in material and energy flows, and allocation ratios in the GHG balances. Market prices of sugar and molasses, amount of nitrogen-fertilizers used in sugarcane production, and sugarcane yield per hectare turn out to be important parameters for the GHG balances estimation. Sales of the surplus electricity derived from bagasse could reduce emissions by replacing electricity produced in diesel power plants. Scenario analysis on two wastewater processes for treatment of effluents obtained from ethanol conversion has also been carried out. If wastewater generated from ethanol conversion unit is treated in pond stabilization (PS) treatment process, GHG emissions alarmingly increase to a level of 4032 kgCO_2eq m⁻³ ethanol. Results also show that the anaerobic digestion process (ADP) and biogas recovery without leakages can significantly avoid GHG emissions, and improve the overall emissions balance of EtOH in Nepal. At a 10% biogas leakage, life cycle emissions is 1038 kgCO_2eq m⁻³ ethanol which corresponds to 44% avoided emissions compared to gasoline. On the other hand, total emissions surpass the level of its counterpart (i.e. gasoline) when the leakage of biogas exceeds 23.4%.     

Health risk assessment of dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Taiyuan, China

Sixteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons （PAHs） were determined in 24 duplicate-diet samples from people in Taiyuan during summer and winter in 2009. Dietary intake of PAHs for 2862 participants was subsequently estimated by a survey in Taiyuan. Results from these 24 samples were compared with a raw food study in Taiyuan in 2008. Three main sources of dietary PAHs are vegetables, wheat flour and fruits, the sum of which contributes 75.95% of PAHs in dietary food. Compared to the estimated value in raw food, much more B[a]Peq （benzo[a]pyrene equivalents） were detected in food samples collected in the duplicate-diet study in Taiyuan （60.75 ng/day）. The cooking process may introduce more B[a]Peq into food, and the relative contribution of 16 PAHs in the diet would be changed during the cooking procedure.     

To drink or grasp? How bullet ants (Paraponera clavata) differentiate between sugars and proteins in liquids

Flexibility in behavior can increase the likelihood that a forager may respond optimally in a fluctuating environment. Nevertheless, physiological or neuronal constraints may result in suboptimal responses to stimuli. We observed foraging workers of the giant tropical ant (also referred to as the “bullet ant”), Paraponera clavata, as they reacted to liquid solutions with varying concentrations of sugar and protein. We show that when protein/sucrose concentration is high, many bullet ants will often try to grasp at the droplet, rather than gather it by drinking. Because P. clavata actively hunt for prey, fixed action patterns and rapid responses to protein may be adaptively important, regardless of the medium in which it is presented. We conclude that, in P. clavata, food-handling decisions are made in response to the nutrient content of the food rather than the texture of the food. Further, we suggest that colonies that maintain a mixture of individuals with consistent fixed or flexible behavioral responses to food-handling decisions may be better adapted to fluctuating environmental conditions, and we propose future studies that could address this.     

滩涂红树林种植-养殖耦合系统水产品中多环芳烃含量水平分析

为了掌握滩涂红树林种植-养殖耦合系统中水产品中多环芳烃的污染情况,保证系统中水产品的品质和食用安全,采用高效液相色谱仪检测了系统中秋茄、桐花树和木榄等养殖塘罗非鱼、鲻鱼和牡蛎体内的13种多环芳烃（polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons,PAHs）[Fluorene（Flu）、Phenanthrene（Phe）、Anthracene（Ant）、Fluoranthene（Fla）、Pyrene（Pyr）、Benz[a]anthraces（BaA）、Chrysene（Chr）、Benzo[b]fluoranthene（BbF）、Benzo[k]fluoranthene（BkF）、Benzo[a]Pyrene（BaP）、Dibenzo[a,h]anthercene（DahA）、Benzo[g,h,i]perylene（BghiP）、Indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene（InP）],分析研究其污染水平并进行食品安全评价.结果表明,牡蛎体内的TPAHs含量最高,干重浓度范围在89.79～98.49μg.kg-1之间;鲻鱼次之,干重浓度范围在25.97～34.64μg.kg-1之间;罗非鱼的TPAHs含量最低,干重浓度范围在12.31～14.41μg.kg-1之间.3环PAHs是主要组成成分,占TPAHs的41.58%～83.35%.脂肪含量是影响不同种类水产品间TPAHs浓度水平的因素.与国内其它地区相比,研究区域水产品内PAHs污染处于轻度的污染水平.3类水产品的湿重等效ΣBaP浓度值在0.068 9～1.037 3μg.kg-1之间,符合欧盟对苯并[a]芘的限值要求.研究区域水产品内PAHs在安全食用范围内.     

Sequential assessment of prey through the use of multiple sensory cues by an eavesdropping bat

Predators are often confronted with a broad diversity of potential prey. They rely on cues associated with prey quality and palatability to optimize their hunting success and to avoid consuming toxic prey. Here, we investigate a predator’s ability to assess prey cues during capture, handling, and consumption when confronted with conflicting information about prey quality. We used advertisement calls of a preferred prey item (the túngara frog) to attract fringe-lipped bats, Trachops cirrhosus, then offered palatable, poisonous, and chemically manipulated anurans as prey. Advertisement calls elicited an attack response, but as bats approached, they used additional sensory cues in a sequential manner to update their information about prey size and palatability. While both palatable and poisonous small anurans were readily captured, large poisonous toads were approached but not contacted suggesting the use of echolocation for assessment of prey size at close range. Once prey was captured, bats used chemical cues to make final, post-capture decisions about whether to consume the prey. Bats dropped small, poisonous toads as well as palatable frogs coated in toad toxins either immediately or shortly after capture. Our study suggests that echolocation and chemical cues obtained at close range supplement information obtained from acoustic cues at long range. Updating information about prey quality minimizes the occurrence of costly errors and may be advantageous in tracking temporal and spatial fluctuations of prey and exploiting novel food sources. These findings emphasize the sequential, complex nature of prey assessment that may allow exploratory and flexible hunting behaviors.     

离子液体[C8mim]PF6对水生生物的毒性作用

运用评价化学品对水生生物毒性的标准试验方法,探讨离子液体1-辛基-3-甲基-咪唑六氟磷酸盐([C8mim]PF6)对普通小球藻、大型蚤和斑马鱼的毒性影响.结果表明,[C8mim]PF6在实验浓度下,对普通小球藻的生长和叶绿素a的产生均有抑制作用,浓度越高抑制作用越明显,且对叶绿素a含量的影响更为显著.高浓度组(200mg/L)可致死部分小球藻细胞;[C8mim]PF6对大型蚤的48h LC50为4.47mg/L,属于高毒性;[C8mim]PF6对斑马鱼的96h LC50为126.08mg/L,属于低毒性.[C8mim]PF6对这3种水生生物的抑制率/致死率(EC50/LC50)随时间呈规律性变化.[C8mim]PF6与藻类的亲和性及其亲脂特性可能是其对水生生物存在潜在毒性的2个主要原因.     

Degradation of metabolites accumulated of benzo[a]pyrene by coupling Penicillium Chrysogenum with KMnO4

Several main metabolites of benzo[a]pyrene （BaP） formed by Penicillium chrysogenum, Benzo[a]pyrene-1,6-quinone （BP 1,6- quinone）, trans-7,8-dihydroxy-7,8-dihydrobenzo[a]pyrene （BP 7,8-diol）, 3-hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene （3-OHBP）, were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography （HPLC）. The three metabolites were liable to be accumulated and were hardly further metabolized because of their toxicity to microorganisms. However, their further degradation was essential for the complete degradation of BaP. To enhance their degradation, two methods, degradation by coupling Penicillium chrysogenum with KMnO4 and degradation only by Penicillium chrysogenum, were compared; Meanwhile, the parameters of degradation in the superior method were optimized. The results showed that （1） the method of coupling Penicillium chrysogenum with KMnO4 was better and was the first method to be used in the degradation of BaP and its metabolites; （2） the metabolite, BP 1,6-quinone was the most liable to be accumulated in pure cultures; （3） the effect of degradation was the best when the concentration of KMnO4 in the cultures was 0.01% （w/v）, concentration of the three compounds was 5 mg/L and pH was 6.2. Based on the experimental results, a novel concept with regard to the bioremediation of BaP-contaminated environment was discussed, considering the influence on environmental toxicity of the accumulated metabolites.     

Toxicity detection of sodium nitrite, borax and aluminum potassium sulfate using electrochemical method

Based on the inhibition effect on the respiratory chain activity of microorganisms by toxicants,an electrochemical method has been developed to measure the current variation of a mediator in the presence of microorganisms contacted with a toxicant.Microelectrode arrays were adopted in this study,which can accelerate the mass transfer rate of an analyte to the electrode and also increase the total current signal,resulting in an improvement in detection sensitivity.We selected Escherichia coli as the testee and the standard glucoseglutamic acid as an exogenous material.Under oxygen restriction,the experiments in the presence of toxicant were performed at optimum conditions(solution pH 7.0,37°C and reaction for 3 hr).The resulting solution was then separated from the suspended microorganisms and was measured by an electrochemical method,using ferricyanide as a mediator.The current signal obtained represents the reoxidation of ferrocyanide,which was transformed to inhibiting efficiency,IC 50,as a quantitative measure of toxicity.The IC 50 values measured were 410,570 and 830mg/L for sodium nitrite,borax and aluminum potassium sulfate,respectively.The results show that the toxicity sequence for these three food additives is consistent with the value reported by other methods.Furthermore,the order of damage degree to the microorganism was also observed to be:sodium nitrite > borax > aluminum potassium sulfate > blank,according to the atomic force microscopy images of E.coli after being incubated for 3 hr with the toxic compound in buffer solutions.The electrochemical method is expected to be a sensitive and simple alternative to toxicity screening for chemical food additives.     

Fat and fed: frequent use of summer torpor in a subtropical bat

A widely held view is that torpor is avoided by mammals whenever possible because of potential costs associated with reduced body temperatures and slowed metabolic processes. We examined this hypothesis by quantifying use of torpor in relation to body condition of free-ranging northern long-eared bats (Nyctophilus bifax, approximately 10 g), a species known to hibernate, from a subtropical region during the austral summer when insects were abundant. Temperature-telemetry revealed that bats used torpor on 85% of observation days and on 38% of all nights. Torpor bouts ranged from 0.7 to 21.2 h, but the relationship between duration of torpor bouts and ambient temperature was not significant. However, skin temperature of torpid bats was positively correlated with ambient temperature. Against predictions, individuals with a high body condition index (i.e., good fat/energy reserves) expressed longer and deeper torpor bouts and also employed torpor more often during the activity phase at night than those with low body condition index. We provide the first evidence that use of torpor in a free-ranging subtropical mammal is positively related with high body condition index. This suggests that employment of torpor is maximised and foraging minimised not because of food shortages or low energy stores but likely to avoid predation when bats are not required to feed.     

Feeding preference of the South American endemic anomuran <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aegla platensis</Emphasis> (Decapoda,Anomura, Aeglidae)

In order to determine the feeding preference of Aegla platensis in streams and the importance of microorganisms in its detritivore diet, we carried out two experiments designed to evaluate the food preferences of A. platensis (1) among leaves with different levels of microbial colonization and (2) among insect larvae (Chironomidae, Simuliidae, Hydropsychidae) and microbially conditioned leaves. A. platensis preferred animal over plant food items; when only leaves were offered, this aeglid preferred the leaves with higher levels of microorganism conditioning.     

Coping with chaos: unpredictable food supplies intensify torpor use in an arid-zone marsupial, the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata)

The severity, duration and amplitude of extreme weather events are forecast to intensify with current climate trends, over both long (e.g. seasonal) and short (e.g. daily) time-scales. As such, the predictability of food supplies for many small endotherms is likely to become increasingly important. Numerous small mammals and birds combat food shortages using torpor, a controlled reduction in metabolic rate and body temperature that helps lower their daily energy requirements. As such, torpor often has been cited as a key feature allowing some small endotherms to survive highly unpredictable climates, such as tropics or dry deserts, but mensurative demonstrations of this are lacking. We have shown here that when a small desert marsupial, the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata), is offered unpredictable levels of daily food, they increase frequency of daily torpor and length of bouts compared with animals offered ad libitum food, but this was not found for animals offered a 70% food-restricted diet. Our data suggest that simple food restriction may not be sufficient for evaluating the efficacy of torpor as a strategy for managing unpredictable climates.     

真菌对污染旱地红壤中苯并[a]芘共代谢降解研究

在恒温和恒定转速培养条件下,模拟生物泥浆反应器法,选择从石油污染土壤中分离出来的青霉菌、黑曲霉、白腐真菌等3种真菌,在添加不同浓度菲和邻苯二甲酸作为共存底物情况下,研究其对旱地红壤中苯并[a]芘(B[a]P)的共代谢降解.结果表明,未灭菌土壤对B[a]P有降解能力,当土壤中添加菲时,提高了B[a]P在土壤中的降解率,100 mg.kg-1浓度菲处理的降解率显著高于200 mg.kg-1浓度菲处理,邻苯二甲酸对B[a]P降解影响不大.灭菌土壤中B[a]P几乎没有降解,添加共代谢底物后土壤中B[a]P降解率变化不明显.添加菲及邻苯二甲酸均促进了青霉菌对B[a]P的降解,提高其降解率,其中添加菲的效果更明显.与灭菌土壤相比,接种黑曲霉提高了B[a]P的降解率,但是添加菲与邻苯二甲酸却均抑制了黑曲霉菌对B[a]P的降解.白腐真菌对旱地红壤中B[a]P的降解能力较差,但当菲或邻苯二甲酸存在时能显著提高白腐真菌对B[a]P的降解,且菲比邻苯二甲酸效果好.     

土壤中邻苯二甲酸酯类物质的降解及其对土壤酶活性的影响

邻苯二甲酸酯类物质(PAEs)是一类在环境中广泛存在的有毒有机化合物,本研究探讨了不同浓度梯度的4种PAEs在土壤中的降解,及其对不同土壤酶活性的影响.用GC-MS法测定土壤溶液中PAEs的浓度,结果表明,土壤中的微生物对PAEs的降解起主要作用,对降解数据拟合发现,PAEs降解符合一级动力学方程,并且碳链越短的酯降解效果越好,降解速率越高.在相对高浓度的PAE30环境中,碳链较长的DnOP的降解效率要低于相对低浓度时的降解率,且在40 d后只能降解73%.采用标准方法测定基质酶的活性,在PAEs加入土壤之后,β-葡萄糖苷酶、磷酸酶、脲酶、蛋白酶的活性均有变化.磷酸酶的活性先降低后升高,β-葡萄糖苷酶活性缓慢下降,蛋白酶活性先升高后降低,脲酶则呈逐渐升高的趋势.但是随着胁迫时间的延长(20 d后),除了β-葡萄糖苷酶的活性继续降低,其他酶活性都逐渐恢复,并超过了对照组.