National assessment of coastal vulnerability to sea-level rise for the Chinese coast

Sea-level rise as a result of climate change increases inundation and erosion, which are affected by a complex interplay of physical environmental parameters at the coast. China’s coast is vulnerable to accelerated sea-level rise and associated coastal flooding because of physical and socio-economical factors such as its low topography, highly developed economy, and highly dense population. To identify vulnerable sections of the coast, this paper presents a national assessment of the vulnerability of the Chinese coast using 8 physical variables: sea-level rise, coastal geomorphology, elevation, slope, shoreline erosion, land use, mean tide range, and mean wave height. A coastal vulnerability index was calculated by integrating the differentially weighted rank values of the 8 variables, based on which the coastline is segmented into 4 classes. The results show that 3% of the 18,000-km-long Chinese coast is very highly vulnerable, 29% is highly vulnerable, 58% is moderately vulnerable, and 10% is in the low-vulnerable class. Findings further reveal that large amounts of land and population will be vulnerable to inundation by coastal flooding from sea level rise and storm surge. Finally, some suggestions are presented for decision makers and other concerned stakeholders to develop appropriate coastal zone management and mitigation measures.     

Assessing coastal management case studies around Europe using an indicator based tool

Over 350 European Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) ‘best practice’ case studies are documented in the OURCOAST online public database, to ensure that lessons learned from experiences and practices are shared and improve coastal management practices. However, concrete criteria for ‘best practice’ are missing and a critical evaluation of the success of these case studies did not take place. We present an indicator-based tool and methodology that allows assessing the progress towards sustainability of ICZM measures. An indicator-based tool was applied to 18 thematically different coastal case studies using two different methods: a fast screening and an analysis in-depth assessment. Both methods used help to identify strengths and weaknesses of ICZM and their contribution to sustainable development. However, indicator scores were highly affected by evaluators’ background and perception. The tool is user-friendly and easy to apply, it indicates what progress has made towards sustainability and to which extent targets have been met.     

Temporal analysis of coastal erosion in Turkey: a case study Karasu coastal region

Coastal erosion may be caused by natural causes as well as human factors. Karasu town of the city of Sakarya in Turkey which is a touristic region on the Black Sea coast has been experienced a drastic coastal erosion. In recent years, this erosion reached the threatening dimensions for the structures in the settlement. According to the temporal analyses of Landsat satellite images, the maximum erosion on the coastline was detected 100 m between 1987–2013. The results of the study show that the harbour construct on the Karasu coast has the major impact on this event. The secondary factor is that the amount of the sediment carried by the Sakarya River was decreased in time due to different reasons. To prevent the coastal erosion, a series of offshore breakwaters were planned after the failed application of groins on the coastline. In this study, temporal changes of the coastline are investigated by the Landsat satellite data and land surveys, possible reasons of the erosion are discussed and the solutions are proposed regarding the coastal structures.     

Physical damage to coastal dunes and ecological impacts caused by vehicle tracks associated with beach camping on sandy shores: a case study from Fraser Island,Australia

As coastal populations expand, demands for recreational opportunities on beaches and coastal dunes grow correspondingly. Although dunes are known to be sensitive to direct human disturbance and provide irreplaceable ecosystem services (e.g. erosion control, critical habitat and nesting sites), dunes serve as campsites for large numbers of people (∼90,000 p.a.) on the ocean-exposed shores of Fraser Island, Australia. Campsites are located in the established dunes and can only be accessed with 4WD vehicles along tracks cut directly from the beach through the foredunes. Here we quantified the extent of physical damage to foredunes caused by this practice, and tested whether human-induced physical changes to foredunes translate into biological effects. Of the 124 km of ocean-exposed beaches, 122 km (98%) are open to vehicles driven on the beaches, and camping zones cover 28.7 km or 23% of the dunes. A total of 235 vehicle tracks are cut across the foredunes at an average density of eight tracks per km of beach. These tracks have effectively destroyed one-fifth (20.2%) of the dune front in camping zones, deeply incising the dune-beach interface. There is evidence of accelerated erosion and shoreline retreat centred around vehicle tracks, resulting in a “scalloping” of the shoreline. No dune vegetation remains in the tracks and the abundance of ghost crabs (Ocypode spp.) is significantly reduced compared with the abutting dunes. Because current levels of environmental change caused by dune camping may not be compatible with the sustainable use of coastal resources and conservation obligations for the island (listed as a World Heritage Area and gazetted as a National Park), restoration and mitigation interventions are critical. These will require spatial prioritisation of effort, and we present a multi-criteria ranking method, based on quantitative measures of environmental damage and ecological attributes, to objectively target rehabilitation and conservation measures. Ultimately, coastal management needs to develop and implement strategies that reconcile demands for human recreation, including beach camping, with conservation of coastal dune ecosystems.     

Sea-level rise and coastal vulnerability: an assessment of Andhra Pradesh coast,India through remote sensing and GIS

The eustatic sea-level rise due to global warming is predicted to be about 18 to 59 cm by the 2100 (IPCC 2007), which necessitates identification and protection of vulnerable sections of coasts. Assessment of vulnerability level of Andhra Pradesh (AP) coast as an example is demonstrated in this study using five physical variables, namely coastal geomorphology, coastal slope, shoreline change, mean spring tide range, and significant wave height. A coastal vulnerability index was prepared by integrating the differentially weighted rank values of the five variables, based on which the coastline is segmented into low-, moderate-, high-, and very high risk categories. About 43% of the 1,030-km-long AP coast is under very high-risk, followed by another 35% under high-risk if the sea level rises by ~0.6 m displacing more than 1.29 million people living within 2.0 m elevation in 282 villages in the region.     

Simulating the fate of Florida Snowy Plovers with sea-level rise: Exploring research and management priorities with a global uncertainty and sensitivity analysis perspective

Changes in coastal habitats due to sea-level rise provide an uncertain, yet significant threat to shoreline dependent birds. Rising sea levels can cause habitat fragmentation and loss which can result in considerable reduction in their foraging and nesting areas. Computational models and their algorithmic assumptions play an integral role in exploring potential mitigation responses to uncertain and potentially adverse ecological outcomes. The presence of uncertainty in metapopulation models is widely acknowledged but seldom considered in their development and evaluation, specifically the effects of uncertain model inputs on the model outputs. This paper was aimed to (1) quantify the contribution of each uncertain input factor to the uncertainty in the output of a metapopulation model which evaluated the effects of long-term sea-level rise on the population of Snowy Plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) found in the Gulf Coast of Florida, and (2) determine the ranges of model inputs that produced a specific output for the purpose of formulating environmental management decisions. This was carried out by employing global sensitivity and uncertainty analysis (GSA) using two generic (model independent) methods, the qualitative screening Morris method and a quantitative variance-based Sobol’ method coupled with Monte Carlo filtering. The analyses were applied to three density dependence scenarios: assuming a ceiling-type density dependence, assuming a contest-type density dependence, and assuming that density dependence is uncertain as to being ceiling- or contest-dependent. The sources of uncertainty in the outputs depended strongly on the type of density dependence considered in the model. In general, uncertainty in the outputs highly depended on the uncertainty in stage matrix elements (fecundity, adult survival, and juvenile survival), dispersal rate from central areas with low current populations (the “Big Bend” area of Florida) to the northern, panhandle populations, the maximum growth rate, and density dependence type. Our results showed that increasing the maximum growth rate to a value of 1.2 or larger will increase the final average population of Snowy Plovers assuming a contest-type density dependence. Results suggest that studies that further quantify which density dependence relationship best describes Snowy Plover population dynamics should be conducted since this is the main driver of uncertainty in model outcomes. Furthermore, investigating the presence of Snowy Plovers in the Big Bend region may be important for providing connection between the panhandle and peninsula populations.     

A seventeen-year study of the rose star Crossaster papposus population in a coastal bay in southeast Alaska

A 17 yr study of a population of the rose star Crossaster papposus (Linnaeus, 1767) in Auke Bay, near Juneau, Alaska, used SCUBA to follow a total of 956 individually marked stars. Population density was relatively constant over the 17 yr of study, although the influx of smaller individuals varied by an order of magnitude. Growth in diameter of individual stars was inversely related to size, with the largest individuals showing negligible growth for periods of months or years. Annual survivorship was relatively high (from 76.3 to 90.4%), and some individuals persisted throughout the study, indicating longevities of at least 20 yr in this species. Observations of food habits indicated that the principal prey item is the reddish scallop Chlamys rubida. In summary, this rose star population was characterized by a relatively stable number of long-lived, slow-growing individuals. Received: 7 April 1998 / Accepted: 5 October 1998     

Relevance of crowding effects in a coastal National Park in Germany: results from a case study on Hamburger Hallig

Coastal environments are popular sites for tourism and faced with an increasing recreational demand. Most of European coastal areas attract numerous visitors annually. In recreation research this management problem can be described in terms of carrying capacity which expresses the ability of a site or region to absorb recreational use without deterioration of natural resources and the quality of the visitor experience. As social aspects of recreation in Europe still have received little attention, the purpose of this study is to examine the applicability of the concept of social carrying capacity in a German coastal national park. The article addresses if the relationship between perceived visitor encounters, crowding perception and visitor characteristics is applicable by using data from an on-site survey (N?=?509) of visitors conducted on Hamburger Hallig, Germany. It examines whether effects of overcrowding are measurable on a popular daytrip destination with established approaches. Results demonstrate that visitors to Hamburger Hallig are characterised by a heterogeneous visitor composition of local residents and domestic tourists with different motivations and who mainly visited the area for hiking or cycling. Study findings show that valuation for reported encounters and perceived crowding differed substantially among origin of visitors and sampling dates. All in all, respondents report a high level of encounter with others and in contrast a very low level of perceived crowding.     

Fertilization in a suite of coastal marine invertebrates from SE Australia is robust to near-future ocean warming and acidification

Climate change driven ocean acidification and hypercapnia may have a negative impact on fertilization in marine organisms because of the narcotic effect these stressors exert on sperm. In contrast, warmer, less viscous water may have a positive influence on sperm swimming speed and so ocean warming may enhance fertilization. To address questions on future vulnerabilities we examined the interactive effects of near-future ocean warming and ocean acidification/hypercapnia on fertilization in intertidal and shallow subtidal echinoids (Heliocidaris erythrogramma, H. tuberculata, Tripneustes gratilla, Centrostephanus rodgersii), an asteroid (Patiriella regularis) and an abalone (Haliotis coccoradiata). Batches of eggs from multiple females were fertilized by sperm from multiple males in all combinations of three temperature and three \textpH/P_\textCO2 {\text{pH}}/P_{{{\text{CO}}_{2} }} treatments. Experiments were placed in the setting of projected near-future conditions for southeast Australia, an ocean change hot spot. There was no significant effect of warming and acidification on the percentage of fertilization. These results indicate that fertilization in these species is robust to temperature and \textpH/P_\textCO2 {\text{pH}}/P_{{{\text{CO}}_{2} }} fluctuation. This may reflect adaptation to the marked fluctuation in temperature and pH that characterises their shallow water coastal habitats. Efforts to identify potential impacts of ocean change to the life histories of coastal marine invertebrates are best to focus on more vulnerable embryonic and larval stages because of their long time in the water column where seawater chemistry and temperature have a major impact on development.     

An application of GIS and coastal geomorphology for large scale assessment of coastal erosion and management: a case study of Ghana

Coastal erosion poses serious threat to life and properties along Ghana??s coast. This is because major industries, urban settlements, recreational facilities, heritage and conservation sites are located few metres from the coast. In spite of this threat, management strategies, both past and present, remain an ??ad hoc?? and site specific. Limited attention has been given to large scale assessment and investigation to detect the rate of coastal recession and the size of land lost to the sea to inform integrated management plan and to formulate sustainable management strategies to deal with the problem. This paper provides large scale assessment of coastal recession in Ghana through field investigation, applied coastal geomorphology and GIS techniques to selected case study areas. The assessment covered 203?km out of the 540?km coastline of Ghana. Results of the assessment indicate that coastal erosion is very substantial and wide spread along the coast, but the rate of recession varies across the entire coastline. Significant amounts of losses of settlements have been experienced in some localities in the eastern coast (Keta and Ada) and the central coast (Accra, Shama and Sekondi-Takoradi). In some areas, coastal defences have been built to reduce the impacts, yet many areas are still very vulnerable. Interestingly, the paper identified that the high rates of retreat recorded in many areas have yet to cause major risks in some local communities because of the presence of a buffer of largely undeveloped land that has existed historically between the shoreline and the developments. However, recent increase in coastal tourism in Ghana has led to ??scramble?? for purchase of these buffer lands for development, which increase the risk. Ghana has the opportunity to use education and land use planning to keep the coastline clear of major developments and avoid the temptation of engaging in costly cycle of development-risk-defence experienced in many countries including the UK and the Netherlands. The paper recommends that Ghana should adopt the UK SMP, which has progressively moved away from the traditional re-active and parochial approaches of providing localised hard-engineered coastal defence work to solve what was perceived to be a local problem, to a more pro-active and holistic approach that take full account of coastal dynamics, interrelationships of coastal systems, knock-on effects, environment concerns and developments at the backshore.     

Dissolved nutrient dynamics along the southwest coastal waters of India during northeast monsoon: a case study

Dissolved nutrients, Chl-a and primary productivity were measured from seven transects along the coastal waters of the southeastern Arabian Sea during northeast monsoon. Ten major estuaries were chosen to study the influence of estuarine discharge on the nutrient dynamics in the coastal waters. The mean water discharge of the estuaries in the north (64.8?±?18?×?10⁵?m³?d^?1) was found to be higher than those in the south (30.6?±?21.4?×?10⁵?m³?d^?1), whereas the nutrient concentrations were found to be higher in the estuaries of the south. The results from the offshore waters were discussed in accordance with the depth contour classification, that is, shelf (depth?≤?30?m) and slope waters (depth?≥?30?m). Our results suggest that the estuarine discharge plays a major role in the nutrient distribution in near shore shelf waters, whereas in shelf and slope waters, it was mainly controlled by in situ biological processes. The inorganic form of N to P ratios were found to be higher than Redfield ratio in slope waters when compared with shelf waters, suggesting that PO₄^3? (<0.15?µmol?L^?1) is a limiting nutrient for primary production. The multivariate statistical analysis revealed that the nutrient dynamics in the coastal waters was controlled by both biological and physical processes.     

Disruption of coastal societies in the Pacific Islands from rapid sea-level fall about AD 1300: new evidence from northern Viti Levu Island, Fiji

This paper reports preliminary findings of a study in northern Viti Levu Island (Fiji) intended to test the model of the AD 1300 Event. This holds that around AD 1250–1350, during the transition between the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age, there was a rapid climate-driven sea-level fall of 70–80 cm which created a food crisis for coastal dwellers throughout the tropical Pacific Islands and led to conflict and the abandonment of open coastal settlements in favour of those in more defensible locations. Two main areas were targeted—the Ba River Valley and adjoining Vatia Peninsula (plus offshore islands)—and inland/offshore sites in defensible locations, particularly in caves, ridge-top rockshelters, and isolated hilltops, were surveyed and test excavations made. Results show that while some of these sites were established during the AD 1300 Event, most were established shortly afterwards, which is exactly what the model predicts. It is concluded that prehistoric populations in Fiji (and similar island groups) were affected by the food crisis during the AD 1300 Event and did respond in ways that profoundly and enduringly altered contemporary trajectories of societal evolution. This study has great implications for the preservation of the record of prehistoric settlement in Fiji (and other tropical Pacific Island groups) because, as a consequence of this climate-forced migration from coasts to inland/upland sites, large amounts of sediment were released from island interiors and carried to their coasts where they buried earlier settlements or redistributed their material signature. Since European arrival in such places around 150 years ago, a second wave of coastal sedimentation, largely driven by plantation agriculture development had similar effects. The current rise of sea level around Pacific Island coasts is the latest in a series of (largely human) threats to the preservation of their cultural heritage.     

Valuing non-market benefits derived from allotments in southeast England: A contingent valuation study

The English derive a wide range of values from allotments, but nearly 35% of allotments have disappeared in the last 20 years. The real value of allotments has probably been underestimated. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was used to give a monetary value to benefits derived from allotments by allotment holders and local residents. The study was conducted in southeast England (Wye and Ashford, Kent and Greater London). A postal survey with open-ended questions was filled in by 124 allotment holders and 74 residents. Respondents were asked to express their maximum willingness to pay for allotments (WTP) and the minimum willingness to accept (WTA) compensation for loss of allotments. The mean annual WTP for keeping allotments of allotment holders were £78.93, £35.64 and £79.43, and for local residents were £41.66, £46.14 and £283.57, in Wye, Ashford and London, respectively. The allotment holders' WTP was strategically more than WTA compensation and they were only willing to pay rent for using allotments, not for retaining them.     

Geomorphology as an indicator of the biophysical vulnerability of estuaries to coastal and flood hazards in a changing climate

Climate change is increasing the need to characterise the vulnerability of coastal landscapes to coastal and flood hazards that result in erosion and inundation. Indices, such as the Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI), have emerged as useful tools with which coastal managers can prioritise areas for further detailed assessment of vulnerability, risk, resilience and adaptation options. Approaches, such as the use of an index, efficiently characterise the vulnerability of linear, one-dimensional coastal features such as coastlines; however, they do not capture variability in coastal processes affecting more complex, non-linear features, such as estuaries, or interactive effects of coastal processes between linear (e.g. coastlines) and non-linear (e.g. estuaries) landforms. We present an approach that uses geomorphology to indicate biophysical vulnerability of estuaries to coastal and flood hazards. The approach is applied to the South Coast of NSW; a wave-dominated coastline of approximately 400 km length that contains more than 100 estuaries. We demonstrate the simplicity of the approach and its utility in identifying areas requiring higher resolution assessments. Although this approach does not include socio-economic factors, we demonstrate the capacity to incorporate socio-economic components of vulnerability using regional land use mapping. We infer that the most vulnerable estuaries are characterised by large catchment areas, broad estuarine valleys, mature stages of infill, or entrances oriented towards the prevailing wave direction. The area below 15 m elevation was identified as a robust indicator of the total area of vulnerability within a catchment. This approach can be applied to one-dimensional and more complex two-dimensional landscapes, such as estuaries; integrates varying sea-level rise projections; and incorporates a wider range of hazards that operate in the coastal zone.     

Improving vulnerability assessment towards Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM): a case study of small islands in Indonesia

Vulnerability assessment is one of the methods currently being used to measure the ocean and coastal sustainability in order to enable better evaluation and redesign of land-based development and policy-making. Because of different geological and geographical formations, the elements that comprise the vulnerability indicators are different from each other, and there are various vulnerability equations that have been used. At the present time, there are no unified vulnerability indicators that can be applied universally to every country. The Seribu Islands, Indonesia, also known in English as the Thousand Islands, consisting of 105 islands located to the north of Jakarta, have been chosen as a study area for vulnerability assessment according to the basic principles of Integrated Coastal Zone Management theory. The results indicate that in practice, Indonesian Integrated Coastal Zone Management legal systems do exist and that in some cases, part of the responsibility for the problems rests with legislation that imposes complex systems of administration, unrealistic sanctions and impractical solutions. This research also shows that inter-sectoral, inter-governance and spatial developments are the three components that need to be improved for the successful implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in the region.     

Wild fruits as a contribution to sustainable rural development: a case study from the Garhwal Himalaya

Garhwal Himalaya is an important source of wild fruit species. These wild fruit trees grow abundantly across an altitudinal gradient of Himalaya and the majority of them bear fruits during summer. Fruit varieties are eaten raw by the local inhabitants of the region and whilst they are a rich source of protein, carbohydrate, fat and other elements, compared to cultivated fruits, they have not yet been considered as a source of alternative food products. About 13 potentially exploitable species of wild fruits and one semi-domesticated species having high potential for exploitation were selected for study; six (Aegle marmelos, Berberis asiatica, Hippophae rhamnoides, Myrica nagi, Rubus ellipticus and Prunus armeniaca) were examined in detail for their economic potential. Among the wild fruits, Hippophae rhamnoides was found to be economically efficient, followed by Aegle marmelos, Rubus ellipticus and Myrica nagi, respectively. Prunus armeniaca, a semi-domesticated and less utilized fruit of the higher Himalaya, provides better economic returns on an annual basis. The authors have recently made an attempt to utilize these wild fruits as a source of income, particularly for poor rural inhabitants and unemployed youths of the region by making a variety of edible products such as jam, jelly, juice, squash, sauce, etc. The enterprise was demonstrated to the people to encourage them to adopt it in the form of a small village-level cottage industry. The present paper discusses the distribution, botany, phenology, yield, ethnobotany, and uses of these species, and the cost-benefit analysis of food products prepared from them.