Using Vascular Plants as a Surrogate Taxon to Maximize Fungal Species Richness in Reserve Design

Abstract:  Fungi are a hyperdiverse taxonomic group that may be disappearing at a very high rate. Identifying fungal species is difficult in the field, and the use of highly specialized taxonomists is required. Data and expertise on vascular plants are, on the other hand, much more common and easy to find. We tested the potential of using vascular plants as surrogates to select reserve sites that maximize the pooled number of fungal species. We used data from 25 forest plots in Tuscany, Italy, that were sampled for woody plants, all other plants, and fungi. Species richness of woody plants and all other plants did not correlate with species richness of fungi. The gradients in species composition were similar among the three considered groups, as indicated by a detrended correspondence analysis ordination and species complementarity between pairs of plots. Fungal communities of the 25 plots had a lower β diversity than plant communities, and there were no pairs of totally complementary sites. Site prioritization for conservation was obtained through integer linear programming to find for any given number of sites those combinations containing the maximum pooled species richness of woody plants or all plants. The combinations of sites obtained by optimizing vascular plant species did not maximize the pooled species richness of fungi, whereas those obtained by maximizing woody plant species provided better results for sets of four to eight plots, but not for all the possible combinations. These results indicated that, in general, vascular plants cannot be used to maximize fungal species richness.     

Use of Abundance of One Species as a Surrogate for Abundance of Others

Abstract: Indicator species concepts have a long history in conservation biology. Arguments in favor of these approaches generally stress expediency and assume efficacy. We tested the premise that the abundance patterns of one species can be used to infer those of other species. Our data consisted of 72,495 bird observations on 55 species across 1046 plots distributed across 30 sub basins. We analyzed abundance patterns at two spatial scales (plot and sub basin) and for empirical and a priori grouping. There were few significant indicator relationships at either scale or under either grouping rule, and those few we found did not explain a substantial portion of the abundance of other species. Coupled with the lack of proven efficacy for species surrogacy in the literature, our results indicate the utility of indicators and similar types of surrogate approaches must be demonstrated rather than assumed.     

Cost-Efficiency of Decaying Wood as a Surrogate for Overall Species Richness in Boreal Forests

Abstract:  Decaying wood is one of the most important elements for species richness in boreal forests. We tested how well reserve selection based on the amount and quality of decaying wood results in a representation of four ecologically different taxa (beetles, birds, wood-inhabiting fungi, and vascular plants). We also compared the cost-efficiency of the use of dead-wood indicators with comprehensive species inventory. Our database included 32 seminatural old-forest stands located in northern Finland. Decaying wood was a relatively good indicator of saproxylic species but not overall species richness. Even though dead wood did not reflect accurately overall species richness, our results indicated that the use of decaying wood as an indicator in site selection was more cost-efficient than using information from large-scale species inventories. Thus, decaying wood is a valuable surrogate for species richness, but other cost-efficient indicators that reflect the requirements of those species which are not dependent on decaying wood should be identified.     

Deforestation and Plant Diversity of Madagascar's Littoral Forests

Abstract:  Few studies have attempted to quantify the reduction or document the floristic composition of forests in Madagascar. Thus, we focused specifically on deforestation and plant diversity in Madagascar's eastern littoral community. We used a data set of approximately 13,500 specimen records compiled from both historical and contemporary collections resulting from recent intensive inventory efforts to enumerate total plant species richness and to analyze the degree of endemism within littoral forests. Change in littoral forest cover from original to current extent was estimated using geographical information systems tools, remote sensing data (satellite imagery and low-elevation digital photography), and environmental data layers. Of the original littoral forest only 10.3% remains in the form of small forest parcels, and only 1.5% of these remaining fragments are included within the existing protected-areas network. Additionally, approximately 13% of Madagascar's total native flora has been recorded from these forests that originally occupied <1% of its total land surface, and over 25% of the 1535 plant species known from littoral forests are endemic to this community. Given the ongoing pressure from human settlement along Madagascar's eastern coast, protection of the remaining forest fragments is critical for their survival. Fifteen of the largest intact littoral forest fragments we identified, collectively representing 41.5% of remaining littoral forest, are among priority sites recommended to the government of Madagascar for plant conservation and incorporation into the protected-areas network.     

植物空间分布的多样性及其度量

分析了23个物种多样性指数公式的取值范围和值域变化,发现它们可以分为3种类型即递增型、递减型和不定型.确定分布区中心或分布式样的中心可用递增型物种多样性指数公式,如Simpson(2),Simpson(3)/Gini,Simpson(5)/PIE,Shannon.Weaver和McIntosh等,据其平均值即可确定分布区中心或分布式样中心.用综合参数d;和Shannon-Weaver指数及其等级多样性与均匀度指数研究了我国裸子植物分布.结果表明,中国裸子植物综合丰度基本上自云贵川西南三省向四周辐射状递减,多样性指数也是自西南或华南向其它地区递减;均匀度指数变化规律不明显,但总的是我国东半部较高,热带与温带性质的交汇过渡地带是云贵川三者.     

常熟地区农户庭院植物多样性与配置模式

选择常熟地区代表性乡村,对农户庭院植物多样性和配置模式进行研究,分析其植物物种组成和多样性,并利用TW INSPAN分类方法,研究了庭院植物配置类型与模式。结果表明:在对281个户级庭院调查中,170户庭院中栽种植物,111户庭院中无任何绿化,共栽种植物151种(含变种、栽培品种),隶属58科116属;庭院植物配置可划分为4种庭院类型和10种配置模式;植物的层次结构对于多样性指数影响较大,植物配置模式的结构越丰富、复杂,其物种多样性指数越高。认为观赏性植物成为庭院的主体植物,观赏功能成为庭院植物的主要功能;庭院内有效绿化面积不足,单位面积植物生态效益较低;乡土植物景观建设与物种多样性保护有待于进一步加强。     

Influence of Habitat Patchiness on Genetic Diversity and Spatial Structure of a Serpentine Endemic Plant

Abstract: Conservation of rare plant species often involves small, local populations dispersed within apparently suitable habitat. We used enzyme electrophoresis to study genotypic diversity in 32 populations of Calystegia collina , a self-incompatible clonal plant endemic to serpentine substrate in northern California's Coast Range. Genotypic diversity within a population was a good predictor of seed set by randomly marked flowers. Ramets from the most abundant genotypes in a population were most likely to produce flowers, but flowers from abundant genotypes were less likely to produce seed capsules than were flowers from rarer genotypes. These results are consistent with previous findings that reproductive success in C. collina is limited by the availability of compatible pollen. On small serpentine outcrops supporting only one or two populations, C. collina did not show reduced genotypic diversity or heterozygosity compared with populations on large outcrops supporting many populations. Instead, genotypic diversity and outcrop size had strong but independent influences on reproductive success. Although large serpentine outcrops contain more populations and provide better conditions for flower and seed production, significant diversity of unique genotypes clearly exists in isolated serpentine outcrops. Our findings suggest that plant conservation strategies must take into account the natural distribution of populations. The effects of habitat fragmentation on C. collina and other plant species that occur naturally in small, discrete patches may be unlike those that have been documented in more recently fragmented species.     

锡林河河漫滩湿地植物群落特征及物种多样性分析

内蒙古高原草原区湿地具有不同于典型湿地的特征,同时还兼具草原的一些特征,在保持生物多样性和珍惜物种资源方面具有不可替代的重要作用.通过样方调查,以重要值为数量特征,采用指示种分析法和多样性指数测定,对内蒙古高原典型内陆河流——锡林河中游河漫滩湿地植被群落特征及物种多样性进行了系统分析和研究.结果表明:(1)锡林河中游河漫滩湿地植被依微地形由高河漫滩向低河漫滩可分为芦苇+羊草,黄花苜蓿+无茫雀麦,灰脉苔草+早熟禾,水甜茅群落,小糠草+蒙古扁穗草等5个群落,以禾本科、菊科、豆科三大草本为主,建群种有别于典型湿地和典型草原群落.(2)植物水分生态类型以湿生、中生为主且无水生类型,具有典型湿地和草原的双重特征;(3)湿地植物群落物种多样性、均匀性和丰富度表现出相似的变化趋势,多样性和丰富度较草甸草原低但高于典型草原;(4)锡林河河漫滩湿地植物群落是典型河流湿地和典型草原之间的过渡类型.表6,参28.     

Genetic Diversity and Population Size in Four Rare Southern Appalachian Plant Species

Allozyme diversity was examined in four rare, high-montane plant species from the Appalachian Mountains of southeastern North America. These species may represent relictual members or descendants of an alpine community that was more widespread during the late Pleistocene. We sampled five populations of Geum radiatum (Rosaceae), Carex misera (Cyperaceae), Trichophorum cespitosum (Cyperaceae), and the four known populations of Calamagrostis cainii (Poaceae). Genetic diversity was low for all species but was typical of that found for plant species with limited ranges. Low genetic diversity may reflect historical events associated with changes in the species' biogeography. As the Pleistocene climate warmed, suitable habitat decreased in areal extent and became fragmented, probably resulting in smaller, more-isolated populations. In recent times these species, which co-occur in fragile rock outcrop habitats, have been adversely affected by human activities. Genetic analyses revealed reduced diversity in populations of decreasing size for three species. Estimates of gene flow were low ( Nm < 1.0) in all four species. Positive associations between genetic diversity and population size, evidence of recent population declines, and the low estimates of gene flow suggest that genetic drift may play a prominent role in shaping the present-day genetic composition of these species. Furthermore, these data suggest that the genetically depauperate populations are unlikely to regain genetic variation without human intervention.     

Genetic Diversity, Population Size, and Fitness in Central and Peripheral Populations of a Rare Plant Lychnis viscaria

Abstract: Genetic diversity is expected to decrease in small and isolated populations as a consequence of bottlenecks, founder effects, inbreeding, and genetic drift. The genetics and ecology of the rare perennial plant Lychnis viscaria (Caryophyllaceae) were studied in both peripheral and central populations within its distribution area. We aimed to investigate the overall level of genetic diversity, its spatial distribution, and possible differences between peripheral and central populations by examining several populations with electrophoresis. Our results showed that the level of genetic diversity varied substantially among populations (  H _exp = 0.000–0.116) and that the total level of genetic diversity (mean H _exp = 0.056) was low compared to that of other species with similar life-history attributes. The peripheral populations of L. viscaria had less genetic variation (mean H _exp = 0.034) than the central ones (0.114). Analysis of genetic structure suggested limited gene flow (mean F _ST = 0.430) and high differentiation among populations, emphasizing the role of genetic drift (  N _e m = 0.33). Isolation was even higher than expected based on the physical distance among populations. We also focused on the association between population size and genetic diversity and possible effects on fitness of these factors. Population size was positively correlated with genetic diversity. Population size and genetic diversity, however, were not associated with fitness components such as germination rate, seedling mass, or seed yield. There were no differences in the measured fitness components between peripheral and central populations. Even though small and peripheral populations had lower levels of genetic variation, they were as viable as larger populations, which emphasizes their potential value for conservation.     

Participatory Approach for Rapid Assessment of Plant Diversity through a Folk Classification System in a Tropical Rainforest: Case Study in Xishuangbanna, China

Abstract:  Rural indigenous people are often very knowledgeable about plant and animal species, including their identification and ecology. The use of indigenous knowledge has increasingly attracted attention in scientific circles. The Dai people, a dominant nationality in southwestern Yunnan, China, have developed their own traditional plant classification system. In a case study in Xishuangbanna, we compared the differences in number of plant species identified between scientific and Dai folk classification. The Dai people identified more than 80% of the plant species, and the correspondence between folk and scientific plant species was 87.7%. Our results indicate that folk plant classification could be used in rapid assessment of plant species in certain regions. The use of folk systems of plant classification for rapid biodiversity assessment will contribute to conservation of both indigenous knowledge and regional biodiversity.     

Higher Taxa as Surrogates of Plant Biodiversity in a Megadiverse Country

Abstract:  An important question in conservation biology is the extent to which the number of taxonomic supraspecific categories can serve as surrogates of species richness. This issue has been little explored in highly diverse areas. We used 113 floristic inventories from throughout Mexico, a megadiverse country, to evaluate the potential of higher-taxon richness for predicting local species richness of vascular plants. This large biodiversity data set includes the main vegetation types found across the country. In all, 247 families, 2,398 genera, and 11,890 species were used for the analysis, representing 99.6%, 90.2%, and 53.2% of the respective totals recorded in the country. We hypothesized that the number of genera and species would be accurately predicted by the richness of the higher taxon. To avoid getting spurious regressions resulting from the logical increase in lower-taxon richness as a higher taxon becomes richer, we calculated new response variables by subtracting from the number of elements in the lower taxon group the number of those in the higher taxon; these variables were "excess species" (number of species minus number of genera or families) and "excess genera" (number of genera minus number of families). Our results indicate that genera provide very effective surrogates for estimation of local species richness ( R ²= 0.85), whereas families have a more limited potential for this purpose ( R ²= 0.64). The predictive capacity of the diversity of higher taxon increased when the analyses were constrained to particular vegetation types (maximum R ²= 0.95 for genera). This surrogate method may be a valuable tool in locating and designing representative systems of protected areas for vascular plant diversity, especially in megadiverse countries, where conservation efforts are hindered by the lack of complete inventories and insufficient resources.