Classification and management issues of Greek lakes under the European Water Framework Directive: a DPSIR approach

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) establishes a framework for the protection of water bodies. The aim of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) is to ensure sustainable management of groundwater, freshwater and marine water in the European Union, such that a minimum "good ecological status" will be obtained by 2015. We used background morphometric, hydrologic, physico-chemical and biological data, in order to highlight the ecological status of the natural Greek lakes using also the Driving-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) approach in order to link the driving forces and further the pressures with the present state of the lakes' ecosystems. In addition detailed biodiversity and habitat typology data are provided. The assessment of the DPSIR approach under the view of WFD provided a quite clear identification of pressures and the subsequent impacts of the qualitative status of the Greek lakes.     

The European Water Framework Directive beyond 2010: let actions speak louder than words

The first generation of WFD River Basin Management Plans is now available. This is a formidable achievement and a great step towards addressing Europe's deteriorated river systems. However, plans are only words: only the actual implementation of the selected measures will result in achievement of good ecological and chemical status. The WFD Lille 2010 Conference pointed out that a lot of new, but so far unused scientific knowledge is available to improve the effectiveness of selected measures or to inspire the introduction of complementary measures. Furthermore, the complexity in terms of the functioning of the water system, its interaction with the socio-economic system and the uncertain consequences of climate change, urges a 'learning-by-doing' approach. This approach should be applied in well-designed, -coordinated and -monitored learning catchments.     

Exploring the utility of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Posidonia oceanica</Emphasis> chlorophyll fluorescence as an indicator of water quality within the European Water Framework Directive

The European Water Framework Directive commits partner countries to evolve uniform protocols for monitoring the environmental condition of natural water bodies, crucially integrating biological and ecological criteria from the associated ecosystems. This has encouraged considerable research on the development of bioindicator-based systems of water quality monitoring. A critical step towards this end is providing evidence that the proposed bioindicator system adequately reflects the human pressures to which a specific water body is submitted. Here we investigate the utility of pulse-amplitude-modulated (PAM) fluorometry, a fast, non-destructive and increasingly popular bioindicator-based method, in assessing water quality based on the widespread Mediterranean seagrass Posidonia oceanica, an important constituent of submersed benthic vegetation. Specifically, we evaluated the ability of PAM to discriminate between sites along a pre-established gradient of anthropogenic pressures and the consistency and reliability of PAM parameters across spatial scales. Our results show that the maximum quantum yield (Fv/Fm), representing the structural photosynthetic efficiency of the plant, responds significantly to the degree of site-level anthropogenic pressure. However, Fv/Fm values in our study increased with increasing pressure, in striking contrast with other studies that report declines in Fv/Fm values with increasing stress. A potential explanation for this discrepancy is that our study sites were influenced by multiple diffuse stressors (characteristic of most coastal waters) that could potentially interact with each other to influence Fv/Fm values in often unpredictable ways. The photosynthetic variables calculated from rapid light curves (ETR_max, maximum electron transport rate; α, initial slope of the curve; I _k, saturating irradiance), which represent an instant picture of the photosynthetic activity of the plant, were unable to clearly discriminate between sites subject to different anthropogenic pressures due to considerable small-scale variability. Taken together, these results suggest that even though PAM fluorometry may be a good candidate tool for monitoring water bodies in terms of costs and applicability, considerably more needs to be understood about how its parameters respond to real-world stressors, particularly when they act in concert with each other. With our present understanding of seagrass photosynthetic responses to anthropogenic stress, it would be ill advised to employ PAM as anything but a complementary tool to validate environmental stress derived with other, more robust methodologies.     

Ecotoxicological Classification of the Berlin River System Using Bioassays in Respect to the European Water Framework Directive

Bioassays as well as biochemical responses (biomarkers) in ecosystems due to environmental stress provide us with signals (environmentally signalling) of potential damage in the environment. If these responses are perceived in this early stage in ecosystems, the eventual damage can be prevented. Once ecosystem damage has occurred, the remedial action processes for recovery could be expensive and pose certain logistical problems. Ideally, “early warning signals” in ecosystems using sensing systems of biochemical responses (biomarkers) would not only tell us the initial levels of damage, but these signals will also provide us with answers by the development of control strategies and precautionary measures in respect to the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). Clear technical guidelines or technical specifications on monitoring are necessary to establish and characterise reference conditions for use in an ecological status classification system for surface water bodies. For the Ecotoxicological Risk Assessment (ERA) of endocrine effects we used an approach of the exposure – dose – response concept. Based on the “Ecototoxicological Classification System of Sediments” that uses pT-values to classify effects in different river systems, we transferred the bio-monitoring data to the five-level ecological system of the WFD. To understand the complexity of the structure of populations and processes behind the health of populations, communities and ecosystems an ERA should establish links between natural factors, chemicals, and biological responses so as to assess causality. So, our ecological monitoring assessment has incorporated exposure & effects data.     

Fucus spiralis as monitoring tool of metal contamination in the northwest coast of Portugal under the European Water Framework Directives

Metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn) in coastal seawaters and soft tissues of macroalga Fucus spiralis from the northwest coast of Portugal were determined to assess spatial variations of metal bioavailabilities and bioaccumulation factors to compare different ecological quality classifications. Both coastal seawaters and soft tissues of F. spiralis showed significant spatial variations in their metal concentrations along the coast. The macroalgae F. spiralis accumulated more efficiently Cd, Mn and Zn and showed low bioaccumulation factors to Cr, Cu and Fe. Regarding the metal guidelines of the Norwegian Pollution Control Authority, the entire northwest (NW) coast of Portugal in April 2013 should be classified as ‘class I—unpolluted’ for all metals, except in Ave for Cu (‘class II—moderately polluted’) and Cavado for Cd and Cu (‘class II—moderately polluted’), revealing the low metal bioavailabilities of these seawaters. As there were always significant positive correlations between all metals in seawaters and F. spiralis, this macroalga species was considered a suitable monitoring tool of metal contamination in the NW coast of Portugal and a useful aquatic organism to be included in the European Environmental Specimen Banks in order to establish a real-time environmental monitoring network under the European Water Framework Directives.     

Typology, classification and management issues of Greek lakes: implication of the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC)

The European Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC, requires the determination of ecological status in European waterbodies, based primarily on biological indicators, and that minimum good ecological quality is obtained by 2015. We used background morphometric, hydrologic, physico-chemical and biological data, in order to assess the typology of the main Greek lakes. Correlation analysis and multivariate analysis (Principal Component Analysis) were applied for the data statistical elaboration. Lakes were classified according to the characteristics suggested in the Directive and specified in the Annex II. Statistical analysis revealed significant correlations between the lake variables as well as the grouping of the Greek lakes according to their abiotic characteristics. Lake water uses, in most cases competed each other, were identified and management practices were also recorded. We suggest that the future conservation efforts should focus on a new holistic management philosophy taking into consideration the catchment's management.     

A proposal for a long-term baseline phytobenthos monitoring programme for the Finnish Baltic coastal waters: monitoring submerged rocky shore vegetation

Several local surveys on the submerged vegetation have been conducted in past decades along the Finnish Baltic coastal areas. Surveys have been carried out by using various methods,which make the temporal comparisons of the results difficult.The need of a joint programme for coastal phytobenthic monitoringis emphasised by the Nordic Council of Ministers and HELCOM. TheFinnish coastal phytobenthic monitoring programme complements theBaltic HELCOM monitoring programme (COMBINE). It is primarily designed to reveal the effects of eutrophication. The programmeincludes general principles for selection of monitoring areas aswell as a proposal for monitored habitats, communities and species. The need of evaluated and tested field methods, datacollecting, interpretation and data storage are addressed in theQuality Assurance part. The cost-efficiency is secured by integrating the phytobenthos programme with the coastal water monitoring for obtaining the supporting data such like salinity,temperature and nutrients. In the design of the monitoring programme a special interest is paid on areas with high protection values such as Natura 2000 or HELCOM's BSPA (Baltic Sea Protected Areas) or on aspects that would support the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive.     

Water quality of Mediterranean coastal plains: conservation implications from the Akyatan Lagoon,Turkey

The water quality of the Akyatan Lagoon was characterized using hydrochemical methodology. The lagoon is located on the Mediterranean coast and is the largest wetland ecosystem in Turkey. In addition, the lagoon is classified as a hyper-salinity wetland. Water samples were collected monthly between December 2007 and November 2008. Eleven stations within the lagoon were determined, and triplicate grab samples were obtained from each station to characterize water quality as follows: T °C, pH, total alkalinity (TAlk), dissolved oxygen (DO), total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity, electrical conductivity (EC), and main anions, including chloride (Cl^?), nitrates (NO₃ ^?), and sulfate (SO₄ ^2?). Results from selected stations indicated varying TDS, EC, salinity, and Cl^? concentrations, from 20,892 to 175,824 mg/L, from 35.7 to 99.6 mS/cm, from 22.3 to 71.0 ppt, and from 14,819 to 44,198 mg Cl^?/L, respectively. Data indicated that the spatial distribution of water quality parameters was significantly affected by freshwater input via the constructed drainage channels which collect water from a catchment area and discharge water into the lagoon as a point source, thus preventing drainage water to reach the lagoon as a nonpoint source.     

Establishment of a sampling strategy for the use of blue mussels as an indicator of organotin contamination in the coastal environment

The application of the Mussel Watch concept to the assessment of chemical contamination in the coastal environment is still premature, since the relationship between the physiological and ecological aspects of blue mussels and the accumulation of contaminants in their soft tissues remains unclear. We cannot yet directly estimate with known confidence the degree of chemical contamination from the levels of contaminants in the soft tissues of mussels. An understanding of the source and range of variability in the tissue concentrations of contaminants is essential, and the establishment of a biomonitoring sampling strategy to minimize the effect of identified sources of variability is required. The present study was conducted to clarify the characteristics of organotin accumulation in blue mussels under various conditions in Tokyo Bay, and to establish an optimized sampling strategy of mussels as exposure indicators of organotin contamination in Japan. It was clear that the sample number, individual size, spawning activity and vertical habitat were factors causing a variation of tissue concentration. Based on a quantitative estimation of the variability of organotin concentration in mussel tissues under various physiological and natural conditions, we suggest that a composite sample of 30 mussels (3-5 cm in shell length), collected from the infralittoral zone prior to their spawning season, is essential to reduce the variability between individuals and to obtain reproducible analytical values at a sampling site. For monitoring sites where natural blue mussels cannot be collected, an alternative method of transplanting blue mussels from a relatively clean area would be required.     

Water quality status and trends in agriculture-dominated headwaters; a national monitoring network for assessing the effectiveness of national and European manure legislation in The Netherlands

Large nutrient losses to groundwater and surface waters are a major drawback of the highly productive agricultural sector in The Netherlands. The resulting high nutrient concentrations in water resources threaten their ecological, industrial, and recreational functions. To mitigate eutrophication problems, legislation on nutrient application in agriculture was enforced in 1986 in The Netherlands. The objective of this study was to evaluate this manure policy by assessing the water quality status and trends in agriculture-dominated headwaters. We used datasets from 5 agricultural test catchments and from 167 existing monitoring locations in agricultural headwaters. Trend analysis for these locations showed a fast reduction of nutrient concentrations after the enforcement of the manure legislation (median slopes of ?0.55 mg/l per decade for total nitrogen (N-tot) and ?0.020 mg/l per decade for total phosphorus (P-tot)). Still, up to 76 % of the selected locations currently do not comply with either the environmental quality standards (EQSs) for nitrogen (N-tot) or phosphorus (P-tot). This indicates that further improvement of agricultural water quality is needed. We observed that weather-related variations in nutrient concentrations strongly influence the compliance testing results, both for individual locations and for the aggregated results at the national scale. Another important finding is that testing compliance for nutrients based on summer average concentrations may underestimate the agricultural impact on ecosystem health. The focus on summer concentrations does not account for the environmental impact of high winter loads from agricultural headwaters towards downstream water bodies.     

A proficiency testing scheme for aromatic hydrocarbons in air by the manual thermal desorption-GC method: a comparison of laboratory performance with the uncertainty requirements of the European Union Ambient Air Directive

The Workplace Analysis Scheme for Proficiency (WASP) is a proficiency testing scheme for the analysis of occupational hygiene and environmental air samples and is operated in the UK by the Health and Safety Laboratory. Since 1997, WASP has offered samples of benzene, toluene and m-xylene, at environmental levels on Tenax, and has about 35 laboratories participating, mostly from industry, local government and consultancy organisations in the UK. The results reported cover the first 10 rounds of the environmental analytes (1997-1999) and demonstrate the important role of proficiency testing in assessing the quality of laboratory performance. Estimates are obtained for within-laboratory precision and the total variability at each analyte level. The estimates of within-laboratory precision suggest that laboratories have more difficulty analysing toluene and m-xylene than benzene. Linear relationships for the reproducibility relative standard deviation (RSDT) with loading level are evident for the analytes at occupational levels. At environmental levels, the relationship between loading level and reproducibility is much less well defined. The standard deviation for the proficiency testing assessment for all three analytes at the environmental level is 14%, as derived from the benzene data. Expanded uncertainty estimates (k = 1.96), for the analysis of samples since the scheme started, are obtained from the average total variance, and are 27% for benzene, 39% for toluene and 36% for m-xylene. Although the linear trend of performance against round number was not significant at the 95% level of confidence (p = 0.23 for benzene, p = 0.3 for toluene and p = 0.32 for m-xylene), there was a general improvement in RSDT from 26-34% to about 8-13% 10 rounds later. Currently, for a laboratory to meet one of the data quality objectives in the Ambient Air Directive (indicative measurement of benzene, expanded uncertainty +/- 30% or less), it would have to achieve a level of analytical performance to satisfy the category 1 (best performance) limit of better than +/- 8.8%. In the last proficiency testing round, discussed in this paper, only 58% of laboratories obtained performance scores that indicated that they were able to consistently achieve this level of performance.     

Water quality decline in coastal aquifers under anthropic pressure: the case of a suburban area of Dakar (Senegal)

In recent years, the unregulated increase of the population in coastal areas of developing countries has become source of concern for both water supply and quality control. In the region of Dakar (Senegal), approximately 80% of water resources come from groundwater reservoirs, which are increasingly affected by anthropogenic pressures. The identification of the main sources of pollution, and thus the aquifer vulnerability, is essential to provide a sound basis for the implementation of long-term geochemically based water management plans in this sub-Saharan area. With this aim, a hydrochemical and isotopic survey on 26 wells was performed in the so-called Peninsula of Cap-Vert. Results show that seawater intrusion represents the main process affecting groundwater chemical characteristics. Nitrates often exceed the World Health Organization drinking water limits: stable isotopes of dissolved nitrate ( $\updelta ^{15}$ N and $\updelta ^{18}$ O) indicate urban sewage and fertilizers as a major source of contamination. Results depict a complex situation in which groundwater is affected by direct and indirect infiltration of effluents, mixing with seawater and freshening processes from below. Besides the relevance of the investigation at a regional level, it represents a basis for decision-making processes in an integrated water resources management and in the planning of similar monitoring strategies for other urban coastal regions.     

Quantifying landscape pattern and connectivity in a Mediterranean coastal settlement: the case of the Urla district,Turkey

This study was aimed at analyzing and interpreting changes in landscape pattern and connectivity in the Urla district, Turkey using core landscape metrics based on a 42-year data derived from 1963 CORONA and 2005 ASTER satellite images and ten 1/25,000 topographical maps (1963–2005). The district represents a distinctive example of re-emerged suburbanization in the Izmir metropolitan area. In order to explore landscape characteristics of the study area, nine landscape composition and configuration metrics were chosen as follows: class area, percentage of landscape, number of patches, patch density, largest patch index, landscape shape index, mean patch size, perimeter area fractal dimension, and connectance index. The landscape configurations in the Urla district changed significantly by 2005 in that the process of (sub-)urbanization in the study area evolved from a rural, monocentric urban typology to a more suburban, polycentric morphology. Agricultural, maquis-phrygana, and forest areas decreased, while the built-up, olive plantation and phrygana areas increased. There was nearly a fivefold increase in the built-up areas during the study period, and the connectivity of the natural landscape declined. To prevent further fragmentation, it is important to keep the existing natural land cover types and agricultural areas intact. More importantly, a sustainable development scenario is required that contains a green infrastructure, or an ecological network planning for conservation and rehabilitation of the vital natural resources in the study area.     

Double sampling for stratification for the monitoring of sparse tree populations: the example of Populus euphratica Oliv. forests at the lower reaches of Tarim River, Southern Xinjiang, China

Desertification is a pressing issue in the dry Tarim River basin, which is under anthropogenic stresses. In this study, double sampling for stratification (DSS) is employed to inventory Populus euphratica Oliv. forests in the lower reaches of the Tarim River Basin in Xinjiang, China. The two objectives were evaluating DSS as a sampling technique for monitoring desertification and generating baseline information for permanent observation. Here, DSS consists of two phases: in phase 1, crown cover is observed on a large sample of plots on a high resolution satellite image, and these photo-plots are stratified into five crown cover strata. Phase 2 is a stratified random sample from these photo-plots and the sampled plots are field observed. Approximately 32% of the study area is without P. euphratica trees. As expected, estimated mean poplar tree density and basal area increase with crown cover. DSS takes advantages of stratification (fieldwork efficiency and statistical precision) without the need for a priori strata delineation. It proves feasible for inventory the sparse poplar population and holds promise for the assessment of trees outside the forest, where density varies considerably and pre-stratification is intractable. It can be integrated into permanent observation systems for monitoring vegetation changes.     

Monitoring the changing position of coastlines using aerial and satellite image data: an example from the eastern coast of Trabzon, Turkey

Coastline mapping and coastline change detection are critical issues for safe navigation, coastal resource management, coastal environmental protection, and sustainable coastal development and planning. Changes in the shape of coastline may fundamentally affect the environment of the coastal zone. This may be caused by natural processes and/or human activities. Over the past 30 years, the coastal sites in Turkey have been under an intensive restraint associated with a population press due to the internal and external touristic demand. In addition, urbanization on the filled up areas, settlements, and the highways constructed to overcome the traffic problems and the other applications in the coastal region clearly confirm an intensive restraint. Aerial photos with medium spatial resolution and high resolution satellite imagery are ideal data sources for mapping coastal land use and monitoring their changes for a large area. This study introduces an efficient method to monitor coastline and coastal land use changes using time series aerial photos (1973 and 2002) and satellite imagery (2005) covering the same geographical area. Results show the effectiveness of the use of digital photogrammetry and remote sensing data on monitoring large area of coastal land use status. This study also showed that over 161 ha areas were filled up in the research area and along the coastal land 12.2 ha of coastal erosion is determined for the period of 1973 to 2005. Consequently, monitoring of coastal land use is thus necessary for coastal area planning in order to protecting the coastal areas from climate changes and other coastal processes.     

Modelling the dispersion of treated wastewater in a shallow coastal wind-driven environment,Geographe Bay,Western Australia: implications for environmental management

Numerical models are useful for predicting the transport and fate of contaminants in dynamic marine environments, and are increasingly a practical solution to environmental impact assessments. In this study, a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model and field data were used to validate a far-field dispersion model that, in turn, was used to determine the fate of treated wastewater (TWW) discharged to the ocean via a submarine ocean outfall under hypothetical TWW flows. The models were validated with respect to bottom and surface water current speed and direction, and in situ measurements of total nitrogen and faecal coliforms. Variations in surface and bottom currents were accurately predicted by the model as were nutrient and coliform concentrations. Results indicated that the ocean circulation was predominately wind driven, evidenced by relatively small oscillations in the current speeds along the time-scale of the tide, and that dilution mixing zones were orientated in a predominantly north-eastern direction from the outfall and parallel to the coastline. Outputs of the model were used to determine the ‘footprint’ of the TWW plume under a differing discharge scenario and, particularly, whether the resultant changes in TWW contaminants, total nitrogen and faecal coliforms would meet local environmental quality objectives (EQO) for ecosystem integrity, shellfish harvesting and primary recreation. Modelling provided a practical solution for predicting the dilution of contaminants under a hypothetical discharge scenario and a means for determining the aerial extent of exclusion zones, where the EQOs for shellfish harvesting and primary recreation may not always be met. Results of this study add to the understanding of regional discharge conditions and provide a practical case study for managing impacts to marine environments under a differing TWW discharge scenario, in comparison to an existing scenario.