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1.
Research has revealed that women’s self-perceived attractiveness positively predicts preferences for male facial and vocal
masculinity, particularly in the context of long-term relationships. Other research has demonstrated that women who perceive
themselves to be less healthy prefer male masculinity more than do women who may be healthier. As self-perceived health may
predict self-perceived attractiveness, previous findings may appear to be contradictory. Therefore, we compared the effects
of self-perceived attractiveness and self-perceived health on vocal masculinity preferences in long- and short-term relationship
contexts. We found that although self-perceived health and attractiveness were positively correlated, self-rated attractiveness
positively predicted long-term vocal masculinity preferences, whereas self-rated health negatively predicted short-term vocal
masculinity preferences. While health and attractiveness may share a common basis, here we show independent potentially adaptive
relationships with preferences based on relationship context. Such preferences are potentially adaptive as (a) masculine men
may pass on inheritable immunity to infection to their offspring, which may be a relatively greater benefit for women in poor
health; and (b) masculine men may be more likely to invest in relationships and offspring of relatively attractive women,
decreasing the cost of choosing a masculine long-term partner for attractive women. These data resolve a potential conflict
between health and attractiveness influences on the attractiveness of masculinity and highlight sophisticated individual differences
in preferences. 相似文献
2.
Roman M. Wittig Catherine Crockford Robert M. Seyfarth Dorothy L. Cheney 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2007,61(6):899-909
Theory predicts that females in species with matrilineal dominance hierarchies should use nepotistic support systems to maintain
their family’s rank. Female Old World monkeys, however, form alliances against other females at surprisingly low rates. Nonetheless,
in many species, females utter threat vocalizations when observing others’ disputes, suggesting that these vocalizations may
function as ‘vocal alliances’. We describe a playback experiment testing the efficacy of vocal alliances in free-ranging female
baboons. Subjects were played the same female’s threat-grunts under three separate conditions: after being threatened by the
signaller’s close relative to mimic kin support, after being threatened by a female maternally unrelated to the signaller
to mimic non-kin support, and after a friendly interaction with the signaller’s close relative as a control. Subjects responded
more strongly to the playback and avoided the signaller and her matrilineal relatives for a longer period of time in kin support
trials than in either non-kin support or no aggression trials. In contrast, there was no difference in subjects’ behaviour
between non-kin support and no aggression trials. These results corroborate observational data showing that vocal support
occurs at a higher rate than physical support in female baboons, and that kin are more likely to provide vocal support than
non-kin. We conclude that vocal support plays a similar role as physical support in the alliances of female baboons. 相似文献
3.
Hansjoerg P. Kunc Valentin Amrhein Marc Naguib 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2007,61(4):557-563
Seasonal patterns of bird song have been studied intensively with a focus on individual males. However, little is known about
seasonal patterns of singing during vocal interactions between males. Vocal interactions have been shown to be important in
sexual selection as males may signal aspects of motivation or quality. Here, we investigated in nightingales (Luscinia megarhynchos) whether a male’s behaviour in vocal interactions at different stages of the breeding season is influenced by its mating
status. We examined how males that differ in their subsequent mating success respond to a non-interactive, nocturnal playback
presented during the period of mate attraction and subsequently during the egg-laying period. We found that mated males overlapped
fewer songs and had a lower song rate during the egg-laying period compared to their responses during the mate-attraction
period, whereas unpaired males did not vary in their responses between the two periods. Our results suggest that mating status
is a key factor affecting singing behaviour in vocal interactions and that a time-specific singing pattern like song overlapping
is used flexibly during vocal interactions. Because song overlapping is thought to be a signal of aggression in male–male
vocal interactions, it seems that males vary the level of aggression in vocal interactions according to their mating status
and to the stage in the breeding season. 相似文献
4.
The effects of testosterone on antibody production and plumage coloration in male house sparrows (Passer domesticus) 总被引:9,自引:3,他引:6
Many bird species have patches of colour in their plumage, contrasting with their basic coloration, which are used to display
and signal status to conspecifics. These are called ’badges of status’, because they are believed to be low-cost signals of
social status. For a signalling system to be evolutionarily stable, cheating must be controlled. The conventional view is
that there is frequent testing, which uncovers cheats. Recently, the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis (ICHH) suggested
that signals may be dependent on testosterone for their development, with a cost being imposed through immune suppression.
We report experiments on house sparrows (Passer domesticus) which show that testosterone significantly influences the size of the bib (a ’badge of status’). The ultimate effect of
the testosterone manipulation was to impair antibody production, as predicted by the ICHH. However, testosterone manipulations
also changed the levels of the ’stress hormone’ corticosterone. The level of corticosterone was also related to the degree
of immunosuppression. After controlling for the effect of corticosterone, testosterone enhanced the birds’ ability to produce
antibodies, counter to the ICHH. The hypothesis therefore must be modified. We suggest that testosterone has a dual effect:
it leads to immunosuppression through a mechanism involving corticosterone but, conversely, leads to increased immunocompetence
probably via dominance influencing access to resources.
Received: 5 March 1999 / Received in revised form: 1 October 1999 / Accepted: 16 October 1999 相似文献
5.
Why do blue-eyed men prefer women with the same eye color? 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
The human eye color blue reflects a simple, predictable, and reliable genetic mechanism of inheritance. Blue-eyed individuals represent a unique condition, as in their case there is always direct concordance between the genotype and phenotype. On the other hand, heterozygous brown-eyed individuals carry an allele that is not concordant with the observed eye color. Hence, eye color can provide a highly visible and salient cue to the child’s heredity. If men choose women with characteristics that promote the assurance of paternity, then blue-eyed men should prefer and feel more attracted towards women with blue eyes. To test these predictions, close-up photos of young women and adult men with either blue or brown eyes were rated for their attractiveness by young women and men observers with either blue or brown eyes (N=88). The eye color in the photographs of each model was manipulated so that a same face would be shown with either the natural eye color (e.g., blue) or with the other color (e.g., brown). Both blue-eyed and brown-eyed female participants showed no difference in their attractiveness ratings for male models of either eye color. Similarly, brown-eyed men showed no preference for either blue-eyed or brown-eyed female models. However, blue-eyed men rated as more attractive the blue-eyed women than the brown-eyed ones. We interpret the latter preference in terms of specific mate selective choice of blue-eyed men, reflecting strategies for reducing paternity uncertainty. In a second study, a group of young adults (N=443) of both sexes and different eye colors (blue, brown, and green) were asked to report the eye and hair color of their romantic partners. Their responses indicated the presence of assortative mating by eye color as well as, to a less degree, for hair color. Most importantly, blue-eyed male respondents were the group with the largest proportion of partners of same eye color. These findings 1) indicate that blue-eyed men do prefer women with the same eye color and 2) specifically suggest the presence of a male adaptation for the detection of extra-pair paternity based on eye color, as a phenotypically based assurance of paternity (i.e., when the father’s and offspring’s phenotypes match) as well as a defense against cuckoldry (i.e., when the phenotypes do not match).Electronic supplementary material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at and is accesseble for authorized users. 相似文献
6.
Bushcricket males of Poecilimon zimmeri transfer large and protein-rich spermatophores during mating, which females directly ingest. There is correlational evidence
that heavier males transfer larger nuptial gifts. In no-choice mating trials, females mated randomly with respect to male’s
body weight. In contrast, in two-choice mating trials, female bushcrickets exhibit clear choice for the heavier male. This
heavier male advantage was also found in pre-mating choice during phonotaxis. With manipulated mute males, females mated at
random with regard to body weight of the competitors. The number of physical encounters between a female and males was low
in all tests with a single male (no choice) and greater in choice-tests with two competing males. The latencies to mate also
differed significantly between treatments. The time mating pairs spent in precopula was short in experiments where the males
could hear rivals and significantly longer in all other tests using either a single male or mute males. Thus, acoustic signalling
in male bushcrickets seems to signal male body weight. A preference for heavier males may reflect a female’s preference for
a larger spermatophore and therefore a greater direct benefit. 相似文献
7.
Frank Marlowe 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1999,46(1):57-64
Paternal care figures prominently in many scenarios of human evolution. Recently, however, such scenarios have been challenged
on two scores. First, the level of male contribution may be insignificant. Second, male care may be provided as a form of
mating effort, rather than parenting effort. In theory, since men can enhance their Darwinian fitness both by providing care
to their own offspring if this raises offspring fitness and by pursuing additional mates if this leads to additional offspring,
men should respond to payoffs from both mating and parenting effort. If men respond to payoffs from parenting effort, paternity
ought to make a difference. And if men respond to payoffs from mating effort, mating opportunities ought to make a difference.
I analyzed the impact of these two factors on variation in male care among the Hadza, a foraging society in Tanzania. Two
predictions were tested: (1) biological children will receive more care than stepchildren, and (2) men will provide less care
to their biological children as their mating opportunities increase. Both predictions were supported. These results suggest
men provide care, in part, as parenting effort, and that they trade off parenting effort for mating effort when they have
greater mating opportunities.
Received: 21 January 1998 / Received in revised form: 24 January 1999 / Accepted: 1 February 1999 相似文献
8.
Amanda Izzo Michael Wells Zachary Huang Elizabeth Tibbetts 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2010,64(5):857-864
Cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) are information-rich signals in social insects that coordinate behaviors within nests. However,
in some taxa, the precise information conveyed by CHCs is poorly understood. In particular, there is a debate over whether
CHCs convey information about their bearer's dominance or fertility. Distinguishing between dominance and fertility signaling
is difficult because fertility and rank are frequently correlated within social insect colonies. This study disentangles those
relationships by examining CHCs of Polistes dominulus paper wasps during the early nest-founding stage before dominance and fertility become correlated. First, we confirm that
dominance and fertility are not associated in early spring foundresses. Then we show that CHCs are more strongly associated
with fertility than dominance. There was no relationship between cuticular hydrocarbon profiles and a wasp’s ability to dominate
rivals through aggression, suggesting that CHCs are unlikely to provide information about dominance. However, there was a
significant correlation between ovarian development and the CHC profile, suggesting that CHCs could convey valuable information
about their bearer's fertility. Furthermore, our data provide a potential mechanism for chemical signaling of fecundity, as
there is a relationship between endogenous juvenile hormone titer (a gonadotropin), degree of ovarian development, and the
CHC profile. Hormonal regulation of CHC profile expression offers a physiological mechanism to coordinate behavior, physical
state, and signal expression. 相似文献
9.
Socially dominant males often signal their status to rival males and/or females. We tested the hypotheses that Lacerta monticola femoral gland secretions and copulatory plugs convey chemical information about male identity and dominance status. We estimated male dominance status by staging male–male agonistic encounters in a neutral arena. We then conducted two experiments to compare male tongue-flick behavior toward chemical stimuli consisting of cotton swabs bearing (1) deionized water (control), the lizard’s own femoral secretions, and the femoral secretions of another male and (2) phosphate-buffered saline solution (control), the lizard’s own plug products, and the plug products of another male. Results indicate that males discriminated their own femoral secretions and plugs from those of other males. They also discriminated morphological attributes of other males that were associated with dominance status based on chemical cues arising from femoral secretions and discriminated the dominance status of other males based on chemical cues arising from the plugs. Femoral secretions that convey information about male identity and dominance status may be hypothesized to function in the establishment of L. monticola dominance hierarchies through scent-marking of territories. We suggest that copulatory plugs and femoral secretions may allow males to scent-mark the female body and postulate that this behavior may influence male and female reproductive decisions under selective pressures of sperm competition. 相似文献
10.
Contrary to classical sexual selection theories, females of many taxa mate with multiple males during one reproductive cycle. In this study, we conducted an experiment on the “trade-up hypothesis”, which proposes that females remate if a subsequently encountered male is potentially superior to previous mates to maximize the genetic quality of their offspring. We presented bank vole females (Clethrionomys glareolus) sequentially with two males of known dominance rank in different orders, i.e., either first subordinate and second dominant, first dominant and second subordinate, or two males that were equal in dominance (high ranking) and observed their mating behavior. We found that 92% of the females mated multiply and did not base their remating decision on male social status. Therefore, polyandry cannot be explained by the “trade-up hypothesis” based on dominance rank in this species. However, we found that dominant males sired significantly more offspring than subordinate males. This varied according to mating order: dominant males sired more offspring when they were second than when they were first. Moreover, litter sizes were significantly smaller when the dominant male was first (smallest relative success of dominant males) compared to litter sizes when mating order was reversed or both males equal in status. Our results suggest that even though multimale mating includes males that are of poorer quality and thus potentially decreases the fitness of offspring, most of a female’s offspring are sired by dominant males. Whether this is due to cryptic female choice, sperm competition, or a combination of both, remains to be tested. 相似文献
11.
In most mating systems, males and females are commonly within signalling and receiving distance of conspecifics during courtship and mating activities. Although it is well known that females who observe sexual interactions between conspecifics will use public information obtained from these interactions when making their own mating decisions, much less is known about whether males use this type of information in making mating decisions. We used the Trinidadian guppy (Poecilia reticulata) to test whether males use public information to (i) copy the apparent mate choice of another male and (ii) modify their mating preference for a given female in the presence of one or two sexual rivals (potential copiers). We show that males use public information to copy the mate choice of other males and that males alter their mating preferences in response to the presence of an audience of sexual rivals, but find no evidence of a stronger audience effect when the number of sexual rivals increases. Collectively, these results indicate that males pay attention to their immediate social environment in making mating decisions and suggest that they avoid having another male copy their mate choice by weakening or even reversing their initial mating preference in the presence of eavesdropping male sexual competitors. Our findings highlight the importance of social context and public information in male mate-choice decisions and have implications for the evolution of male mating preferences and of social information use in populations. 相似文献
12.
Tobias ML Corke A Korsh J Yin D Kelley DB 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2010,64(11):1791-1803
Male Xenopus laevis frogs produce underwater advertisement calls that attract gravid females and suppress calling by male competitors. Here we
explore whether groups of males establish vocal ranks and whether auditory cues alone suffice for vocal suppression. Tests
of male–male pairs within assigned groups reveal linear vocal dominance relations, in which each male has a defined rank.
Both the duration over which males interact, as well as the number of competitive opportunities, affect linearity. Linear
dominance across the group is stable for about 2 weeks; rank is dynamic. Males engage in physical interactions (clasping)
while paired but clasping and vocal rank are not correlated. Playbacks of advertisement calls suppress calling and calls from
high- and low-ranking males are equally effective. Thus, auditory cues alone suffice to suppress vocal behavior. Playback
intensities equivalent to a nearby male advertising effectively suppress calling while low-intensity playbacks are either
ineffective or stimulate vocal behavior. X. laevis advertisement calls are biphasic, composed of alternating fast and slow click trills. Approximately half the males tested
are more vocally suppressed by all slow than by all fast trills; thus, these males can distinguish between the two phases.
The fully aquatic family Pipidae diverged from terrestrial ancestors approximately 170 mya. Vocal suppression in the X. laevis mating system may represent the translation of an ancient anuran social strategy to underwater life. 相似文献
13.
Hormones play a central role in the physiology and behaviour of animals. The recent development of noninvasive techniques
has increased information on physical and social states of individuals through hormone measurements. The relationships among
hormones, life history traits and behaviours are, however, still poorly known. For the first time, we evaluated natural winter
glucocorticoid and testosterone levels in young ungulates in relation to winter progression, diet quality and social rank.
Overwinter, levels of glucocorticoid and testosterone decreased, possibly due to the decline of fawns’ body mass. The relationships
between hormone levels and diet quality were surprising: Fawns fed the control diet presented higher glucocorticoid and lower
testosterone levels then fawns fed the poor diet, suggesting that control fawns faced a higher nutritional stress than those
on the poor diet. Similarly to other studies on social mammals, we found no relationship between faecal glucocorticoid levels
and social rank, suggesting that social stress was similar for dominant and subordinate fawns during winter. Testosterone
levels were not correlated to social rank as found previously in groups of individuals forming stable social hierarchies and
maintaining stable dominance relationships. The simultaneous suppression of glucocorticoid and testosterone levels suggests
for the first time that young ungulates present a hormonal strategy to prevent fast depletion of limited proteins and fat
resources during winter. 相似文献
14.
Sjouke A. Kingma István Szentirmai Tamás Székely Veronika Bókony Maarten Bleeker András Liker Jan Komdeur 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2008,62(8):1277-1288
Melanin-based ornaments are often involved in signaling aggression and dominance, and their role in sexual selection is increasingly
recognized. We investigated the functions of a melanin-based plumage ornament (facial ‘mask’) in male Eurasian penduline tits
Remiz pendulinus in the contexts of male–male aggression, mating success, and parental care. The penduline tit is a passerine bird with a
unique mating system in which both sexes may mate with several mates in a breeding season, and one (or both) parent deserts
the clutch. Our study revealed that mask size of males is more likely an honest signal used by females in their mate choice
decisions than a trait involved in male–male competition. First, mask size increased with both age and body condition, indicating
that the mask may signal male quality. Second, males with larger masks paired more quickly and had more mates over the breeding
season than males with smaller masks. Third, we found no evidence that male mask size signals male–male aggression or dominance
during competitive encounters. The increased mating success of large-masked males, however, did not translate into higher
reproductive success, as nestling survival decreased with mask size. Therefore, we conclude that there is either no directional
selection on male mask size or males with larger masks receive indirect, long-term benefits. 相似文献
15.
Sperm competition is predicted to generate opposing selection pressures on males. On one hand, selection should favour ‘defensive’ adaptations that protect a male’s ejaculate from displacement, while, on the other hand, selection should favour ‘offensive’ adaptations that overcome paternity assurance mechanisms of rivals. Here, we use the sterile male technique to assess sperm precedence when a male dung beetle Onthophagus taurus mates in both a defensive (first male) and an offensive (second male) role. Significant variation in a male’s sperm precedence (both P
1 and P
2) was detected, and an individual’s defensive (P
1) and offensive (P
2) abilities were positively correlated. Thus, it appears that sexual selection simultaneously selects for ‘defensive’ and ‘offensive’ adaptations in O. taurus. We discuss a variety of male traits in O. taurus that potentially contribute to a male’s ability to be successful when mating in an ‘offensive’ and a ‘defensive’ role. 相似文献
16.
T. J. Bergman J. C. Beehner D. L. Cheney R. M. Seyfarth P. L. Whitten 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2006,59(4):480-489
To date, research on testosterone and behavior has focused on individuals, even when studying social behaviors that necessarily
involve multiple participants. Here, we explore male responses to other males of different dominance ranks and testosterone
levels in a population of wild baboons. In chacma baboons (Papio hamadryas ursinus) of the Okavango Delta, a male’s testosterone is related to his rank trajectory and, therefore, the threat he poses to other
males. To examine the effects of testosterone and rank on male–male interactions, we used playback experiments to measure
how a target male responded to the simulated approach of another male, scoring responses by whether or not the subject moved
away from the speaker in the first minute. High testosterone subjects did not move away from the speaker more often than low
testosterone subjects, but high testosterone callers elicited a move more often than low testosterone callers. When the combined
testosterone of the subject and caller was high, moves were most common. The rank relationship between subject and caller
did not predict moves, but the effect of combined testosterone on moving was most pronounced in adjacently ranked males. Adjacently
ranked, high testosterone males are the most likely to be competing for each others’ rank, and our experiments on these dyads
elicited the most moves. Both behavioral and experimental observations indicate that testosterone may be more important than
the rank relationship in predicting the outcome of male–male interactions. Furthermore, combined information on the testosterone
of both males was the best predictor of results, highlighting the utility of dyadic analyses when relating testosterone to
behavior. 相似文献
17.
J. C. Beehner T. J. Bergman D. L. Cheney R. M. Seyfarth P. L. Whitten 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2006,59(4):469-479
Despite the many benefits that testosterone has on male reproduction, sustaining high levels of testosterone for long periods
can be costly. The challenge hypothesis predicts that males will show temporarily sustained elevations of testosterone at
critical periods, counterbalanced by decreased levels during noncritical periods. We investigated male testosterone measures
extracted from fecal samples in a group of chacma baboons (Papio hamadryas ursinus) living in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Because rank serves as a proxy for competition for mates, we examined how male testosterone
was related to dominance rank, age, aggression, and mating activity. Males showed an elevation in testosterone at maturity;
young adult males had the highest testosterone levels followed by a steady decline with age. Among dispersing males, testosterone
was temporarily elevated in the month following dispersal. After controlling for age, testosterone and rank were unrelated,
but testosterone and changes in rank were positively correlated, such that males rising in rank had higher testosterone than
males falling in rank. Thus, for males in this group, testosterone was predictive of a male's rank trajectory, or future rank.
Similarly, male testosterone levels predicted future, rather than current, mating activity. Finally, male testosterone and
aggression rates were unrelated during stable periods in the dominance hierarchy but positively related during unstable periods
when high ranks were being contested. In general, our results support the challenge hypothesis with males exhibiting elevated
testosterone in association with the acquisition of high rank (ensuring access to mates), rather than with mating itself. 相似文献
18.
Anne L. Engh Rebekah R. Hoffmeier Robert M. Seyfarth Dorothy L. Cheney 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2009,64(1):97-104
Males in sexually dimorphic species like baboons appear to have surprisingly little influence on the reproduction and dominance
ranks of their female kin, even though they could potentially increase their fitness by helping their relatives improve their
ranks. Male baboons are able to dominate females several years before they emigrate, but their presence has no effect on relatives’
dominance ranks, at least when female kin are present. As a result, females usually acquire ranks within their matriline,
above their older sisters. We describe the process of rank acquisition among orphaned and non-orphaned juvenile and adolescent
females in a group of free-ranging baboons. Orphaned females were significantly more likely than non-orphaned females to acquire
unexpected ranks. Orphaned females with older sisters often acquired ranks within the matriline, but below their older sisters’.
Orphaned females with older brothers were likely to rise in rank above their matriline. Females’ interventions on behalf of
younger sisters always supported the existing female dominance hierarchy, while males’ interventions tended to act against
it. Similarly, in playback experiments, females appeared to be willing to support their younger sister only in disputes with
lower-ranking females. In contrast, males appeared to be willing to support their sister even in disputes with higher-ranking
females. Fraternal support enables females to improve their dominance ranks, but only if their mothers have died. It remains
a puzzle why males have so little influence on their female relatives’ ranks when female kin are present, and so much when
they are absent. 相似文献
19.
Many fishes are characterized by intense sperm competition between males that use alternative mating tactics. In externally
fertilizing fishes, males’ proximity to females during spawning can be an important determinant of fertilization success.
Here, we assess how mating tactic, body length, speed during streak spawns, and periphery cover affect males’ proximity to
females during sperm competition in the externally fertilizing bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus). Bluegill are characterized by three mating tactics referred to as parental, sneaker, and satellite. Parentals are territorial
and construct nests, while sneakers use a streaking behavior, and satellites use female mimicry to steal fertilizations from
parentals. We show that a small body length is important for sneakers but not for satellites to obtain a close position to
the female during spawning. Specifically, smaller sneakers obtain a closer position to females than larger sneakers in part
by positioning themselves closer on the periphery of a parental’s nest before streaking but show no difference in the speed
at which they streak. The amount of peripheral vegetation around a parental’s nest did not appear to affect proximity of sneakers
to females, and there was no relationship between the amount of peripheral vegetation and the frequency of intrusions by either
sneakers or satellites. Finally, parentals were farther from the female when a sneaker or satellite intruded than when they
spawned alone with the female. 相似文献
20.
Secondary sexual characters often provide indicators of a male’s resistance to infectious diseases to rivals and potential
mates, but it is unclear why. It is often suggested that males honestly signal their health due to energetic and other physiological
trade-offs between investing into secondary sexual traits vs resistance to infectious diseases. Our aim was to determine whether
such a trade-off exists using wild-derived male house mice (Mus domesticus). We exposed male mice to female scent, a manipulation that induces elevations in testosterone concentration and the expression
of a variety of testosterone-mediated secondary sexual traits, and tested whether this sexual stimulation impaired the males’
ability to resolve or cope with an experimental infection (Salmonella enterica). We kept the males on a controlled diet to prevent them from compensating by eating more food. We found that sexually stimulated
males were able to control bacterial growth as effectively as sham-stimulated controls; however, to do so, they lost more
body mass during infection compared to the controls. In contrast, we found no evidence that sexual stimulation reduced the
body mass of uninfected male mice. These results indicate that males’ responses to female odor are not immunosuppressive per
se, yet they increase the energetic costs of controlling infection. Our findings support the idea that there is a physiological
trade-off between secondary sexual signaling vs resistance to infectious diseases and suggest that studies using only immunocompetence
assays might fail to detect such energetic trade-offs.
We dedicate this paper to the late Professor Chris Barnard who conducted pioneering research on this topic. 相似文献