Impact of Toll Removal on Air Particulate Concentration in Jacksonville,Florida

The concentration of total suspended particulate (TSP) matter was determined at commercial, residential, rural and industrial sites in metropolitan Jacksonville during the summers of 1989 and 1990. These data were compared to samples taken at the Mathews Bridge Toll Plaza in 1989 and at a similar location one year later, after removal of the toll facility. All samples were analyzed by reflectance analysis and the approximate elemental carbon content used to estimate the contribution of vehicular traffic at the roadway. The results indicate a significant improvement in air quality at the location of the previous toll facility, but did not show that a widespread improvement resulted from the removal of tolls in Jacksonville, Florida.     

Development of Probabilistic Emission Inventories of Air Toxics for Jacksonville,Florida

Abstract

Probabilistic emission inventories were developed for 1,3-butadiene, mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), benzene, formaldehyde, and lead for Jacksonville, FL. To quantify inter-unit variability in empirical emission factor data, the Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) method or the Method of Matching Moments was used to fit parametric distributions. For data sets that contain nondetected measurements, a method based upon MLE was used for parameter estimation. To quantify the uncertainty in urban air toxic emission factors, parametric bootstrap simulation and empirical bootstrap simulation were applied to uncensored and censored data, respectively. The probabilistic emission inventories were developed based on the product of the uncertainties in the emission factors and in the activity factors. The uncertainties in the urban air toxics emission inventories range from as small as –25 to +30% for Hg to as large as –83 to +243% for As. The key sources of uncertainty in the emission inventory for each toxic are identified based upon sensitivity analysis. Typically, uncertainty in the inventory of a given pollutant can be attributed primarily to a small number of source categories. Priorities for improving the inventories and for refining the probabilistic analysis are discussed.     

Development of probabilistic emission inventories of air toxics for Jacksonville, Florida, USA

Probabilistic emission inventories were developed for 1,3-butadiene, mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), benzene, formaldehyde, and lead for Jacksonville, FL. To quantify inter-unit variability in empirical emission factor data, the Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) method or the Method of Matching Moments was used to fit parametric distributions. For data sets that contain nondetected measurements, a method based upon MLE was used for parameter estimation. To quantify the uncertainty in urban air toxic emission factors, parametric bootstrap simulation and empirical bootstrap simulation were applied to uncensored and censored data, respectively. The probabilistic emission inventories were developed based on the product of the uncertainties in the emission factors and in the activity factors. The uncertainties in the urban air toxics emission inventories range from as small as -25 to +30% for Hg to as large as -83 to +243% for As. The key sources of uncertainty in the emission inventory for each toxic are identified based upon sensitivity analysis. Typically, uncertainty in the inventory of a given pollutant can be attributed primarily to a small number of source categories. Priorities for improving the inventories and for refining the probabilistic analysis are discussed.     

Improving Urban Air Quality in China: Beijing Case Study

Abstract

China is undergoing rapid urbanization because of unprecedented economic growth. As a result, many cities suffer from air pollution. Two-thirds of China’s cities have not attained the ambient air quality standards applicable to urban residential areas (Grade II). Particulate matter (PM), rather than sulfur dioxide (SO₂), is the major pollutant reflecting the shift from coal burning to mixed source pollution. In 2002, 63.2 and 22.4% of the monitored cities have PM and SO₂ concentrations exceeding the Grade II standard, respectively. Nitrogen oxides (NO_x) concentration kept a relatively stable level near the Grade II standard in the last decade and had an increasing potential in recent years because of the rapid motorization. In general, the air pollutants emission did not increase as quickly as the economic growth and energy consumption, and air quality in Chinese cities has improved to some extent. Beijing, a typical representative of rapidly developing cities, is an example to illustrate the possible options for urban air pollution control. Beijing’s case provides hope that the challenges associated with improving air quality can be met during a period of explosive development and motorization.     

The Impact of Stratospheric Ozone on Tropospheric Air Quality

A background of ozone (O₃), principally of stratospheric origin, is present in the lower free troposphere. Typical mean O₃ levels of 50 ppb, 40 ppb, and 30 ppb are encountered here in spring, summer, and fall, respectively. Maximum hourly O₃ concentrations which are twice these mean values can be expected. Ozone from the free troposphere is routinely brought down to ground level under turbulent atmospheric conditions. Deep and rapid Intrusions of stratospheric air into the lower troposphere are associated with low-pressure troughs and occur regularly. In the mid troposphere, O₃ levels as high as 300 ppb are found within these intrusions. Observational data showing these intrusions, containing high O₃ concentrations, to directly reach ground level are currently lacking. Over the United States, an intrusion was present aloft on 8 9% of the days in 1978. The frequency, however, is somewhat reduced in summer and a northward movement is evident. During 1978, no intrusion occurred south of 30°N between June and August and none south of 40 °N in August.

The hypothesis that low levels of stratospheric O₃ produce disproportionately large amounts of O₃ in the polluted atmosphere cannot be supported from currently known chemistry but should be studied further. The experimental technique involving a ⁷Be/O₃ ratio to estimate the daily stratospheric component of ground level O₃ is unverified and considered to be inadequate for air quality applications. Estimates resulting from such a technique are considered uncertain by a factor of more than three. Specially designed aircraft studies provide the best means to determine quantitatively the impact of stratospheric O₃ on ground level air quality.     

A Study of Indoor Air Quality

As part of a larger program to investigate indoor sources of air pollution, an indoor/outdoor sampling program was carried out for NO, NO₂, and CO In four private houses which had gas stoves. The four houses chosen for study represented different surrounding land use, life styles, and house age and layout. The pollutant gases were measured essentially simultaneously at three indoor locations and one outdoor location. The results of the program showed that indoor levels of NO and NO₂ are directly related to stove use in the homes tested. Furthermore, these stoves often produced more NO₂ than NO. In some instances, the levels of NO₂ and CO in the kitchen exceeded the air quality standards for these pollutants if such outdoor standards were to be applied to indoors and the data for the sampling periods were typical of an entire year. A diffusion experiment conducted in one of the houses showed that the half-life for NO₂ was less than one-third that for either NO or CO. Oxidation of NO to NO₂ (based upon comparing the half-life of NO to CO) does not appear to occur to a significant degree indoors.     

A Quantitative Approach to the Traffic Air Quality Problem: The Traffic Air Quality Index

Abstract

The Traffic Air Quality (TAQ) model is a simple tool to estimate traffic fine particulate emissions on roadways (g/km) and can be used for both real-time analysis and for localized conformity analysis (“hot-spot” analysis for nonattainment areas) as defined by 40 CFR 93.123. This paper is a follow-up to a study published earlier regarding the development of the TAQ model. This paper shows how local air quality levels can be a factor in traffic management in nonattainment areas. Similar to the industrial source quotas measured in tons per year, it is proposed that road segments are to be assigned emission quotas (or TAQ indices) measured in pollutant mass emitted per road length (g/km) above which traffic-measures have to be taken to reduce the fine-particulates emissions on such road links. The TAQ model as well as traffic-rerouting measures along with the Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) protocols can be used to have a real-time control of the traffic conditions along expressways to maintain the fine-particulates emissions below the quota assigned per road link and consequently improving the over all local air quality in nonattainment areas.     

The Influence of Annual Meteorological Variations On Regional Air Pollution Modeling: A Case Study of Allegheny County,Pennsylvania

The influence of year-to-year meteorological variations on the prediction of annual average ground-level pollutant concentrations has been examined via case studies of Allegheny County, Pa. Twenty-two stability wind roses representing different averaging intervals of from one to seven years were employed in the Air Quality Display Model to predict annual average SO₂ concentrations in two multiple source sub-basins, and from two single point sources representing industrial and utility boiler stacks. Effects of annual meteorological variations were manifested by changes in the magnitude of peak concentrations, the location of peak concentrations, and the geographic distribution of pollutants. For fixed rates of emission, the peak annual average SO₂ ground-level concentration varied by an average of up to 33% of highest values for point sources and 17% for sub-basin complexes. In both cases, there was relatively little change in the location of peak concentration, though occasional directional shifts were noted. In contrast, marked variations were noted in the geographic area exposed to annual average concentrations in excess of several selected values. To aid in regional planning, several methods were formulated which considerably reduced the uncertainty in predicting peak annual concentration for varying degrees of historical data on regional stability wind rose. These methods are-especially applicable to analysis of control strategies directed at attaining annual ambient air quality standards which nominally must never be exceeded.     

The Impact of Increased Recycle Rates on Markets in Florida

The State of Florida passed The Florida Solid Waste Management Act of 1988 mandating that county recycling programs be initiated by July 1, 1989. The legislation further expressed the goal that, at a minimum, recycling efforts reduce the amount of solid waste requiring final disposal or resource recovery by 30 percent by the end of 1994. This study was performed to determine the impact on recycle markets when the amounts of materials recycled from the municipal solid waste stream are increased by 30 percent in Florida.

The composition of the municipal waste stream was quantified in terms of the amounts of paper, plastic, metals, glass, and rubber. The effect of a 30 percent increase in the recycle rate of each class of material was calculated and compared to existing recycle rates in the State of Florida. It was determined that there are few capacity constraints on the increase in recycle rates for aluminum, steel (i.e., tin cans), and color separated glass. There are, however, serious constraints on increasing recycle rates for paper, plastics and rubber tires.     

Effect of Gas and Kerosene Space Heaters on Indoor Air Quality: A Study in Homes of Santiago,Chile

Abstract

The impact of outdoor and indoor pollution sources on indoor air quality in Santiago, Chile was investigated. Toward this end, 16 homes were sampled in four sessions. Each session included an outdoor site and four homes using different unvented space heaters (electric or central heating, compressed natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, and kerosene). Average outdoor fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) concentrations were very high (55.9 μg·m^-3), and a large fraction of these particles penetrated indoors. PM_2.5 and several PM_2.5 components (including sulfate, elemental carbon, organic carbon, metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) were elevated in homes using kerosene heaters. Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and ultrafine particles (UFPs) were higher in homes with combustion heaters as compared with those with electric heaters or central heating. A regression model was used to assess the effect of heater use on continuous indoor PM_2.5 concentrations when windows were closed. The model found an impact only for kerosene heaters (45.8 μg m^-3).     

Air Quality Impact of Aircraft at Ten U.S. Air Force Bases

Data on visits to New York City metropolitan area hospital emergency rooms for asthmatic attacks were analyzed to identify asthma “events”: days when the number of such visits was unusually high. In the fall season such days tended to occur simultaneously at all hospitals of the study, and thus can be plausibly associated with some environmental agent acting simultaneously throughout the city. Data on sulfur dioxide and particulate concentrations from the 40-station New York City Aerometric Network were used as pollution measures, and a search for a relationship between asthma “events” and air pollution levels on the same day and on the preceding day was made using standard statistical techniques. No relationship was found.     

Simulation of the Environmental Impact of an Airport on the Surrounding Air Quality

It is the purpose of this study to demonstrate the procedure involved in simulating those average and maximum pollutant concentrations at or around an airport which fall under the control of the Clean Air Act. The information is useful, when planning new or expanding existing airports, when estimating the impact of airports on the surrounding air quality, and when assessing the effectiveness of control procedures. Simulation of airport air quality requires the accurate assessment of the temporal and spatial emission patterns. This involves the tabulation of air traffic density by type and engine, make and model of aircraft, and engine mode number; the use of fuel by different aircraft; the pollutant emission rates by engine model and operational mode; the allocation of emission rates to the respective runways, turn-off points, taxi-ways, and parking areas, and the time each aircraft spent in the different operational modes. The resulting emission pattern for the Honolulu International Airport reflects scheduled and unscheduled commercial and military jet and piston aircraft and nonaircraft operations. Using this and the appropriate meteorological information average and maximum surface concentrations were calculated and compared with local ambient air quality standards. The calculation of concentrations is based on a newly developed diffusion model incorporating harmonic mean wind speeds for every degree of wind direction as determined by a Parzen maximum likelihood interpolation technique, and the assumption of log-normal concentration distributions. It is shown that for some pollutants the air quality standards are substantially exceeded, and it is concluded that airports may have a considerable adverse impact on their surrounding air quality.     

Air Quality: Status,Management and Direction

The Tenth Government Affairs Seminar conducted by the Air Pollution Control Association was held in Washington, D.C. on March 17–18, 1982. The APCA Government Affairs Committee of which John S. Lagarias is Chairman, sponsored this meeting. Dr. Jerry Pell was General Chairman of the Seminar Steering Committee which included in its membership: Gordon M. Rapier, Vice-chairman, William K. Bonta, Facilities Chairman, Barbara Bankoff, David Benforado, D. Kent Berry, Samuel Booras, William Chapman, Stanley Coloff, Philip T. Cummings, Roy S. Denham, Gerald P. Dodson, Daniel Dreyfus, Raymond W. Durante, Victor S. Engleman, Richard Grundy, W. G. Hamlin, Glenn Hanson, G. Steve Hart, Terrence Li Puma, Michael Lukey, John E. Maroney, William Megonnell, Curtis A. Moore, Russell Mosher, Joseph Mullan, Sidney R. Orem, Dennis G. Seipp, Martin L. Smith, Roger Strelow, Michael Tinkleman, Neal Troy.

This meeting served as a forum for discussion of the issues of: the Clean Air Act amendments, regulatory reform, international perspectives on acid rain, and new directions pursued by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Representative Henry A. Waxman, Chairman, Subcomittee on Health and the Environment, Committee on Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives, was the keynote speaker. The Honorable C. Boyden Gray, Counsel to the Vice President of the United States was the luncheon speaker on Wednesday. Daniel J. Goodwin, President, State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators, was the luncheon speaker on Thursday.

Session 1. entitled “The Clean Air Act: Legislative Status,” was moderated by G. Steve Hart, President of APCA. Session 2. “Regulatory Reform,” was chaired by Richard N. Holwill, Vice President for Government Information, The Heritage Foundation. The Honorable A. Alan Hill, and Gordon Snow, from the President’s Council on Environmental Quality were co-moderators for Session 3. which was entitled, “Acid Rain: International Perspectives.” Session 4. “Critical Issues,” was moderated by Walter C. Barber, Jr., Director, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Condensed versions of the remarks of the participants are presented here. A more extensive summary of the meeting which includes floor discussion is available in the Proceedings of the Tenth APCA Government Seminar which can be obtained from APCA headquarters.     

The Altitude: A Fundamental Parameter in the Use of Air Quality Standards

Organic vapors are emitted to the indoor air from a variety of consumer products and building materials. The U.S. EPA Is evaluating the emission characteristics from such sources using small environmental test chambers. Emission rate data are presented, and the effect of temperature and air exchange rate are discussed. Models are used to account for the Impact of chamber concentration and “wall effects” on emission rates. Indoor concentrations of specific organlcs emitted from a silicone caulk are estimated from the chamber test data.     

Contribution of Ecosystem Services to Air Quality and Climate Change Mitigation Policies: The Case of Urban Forests in Barcelona,Spain

Mounting research highlights the contribution of ecosystem services provided by urban forests to quality of life in cities, yet these services are rarely explicitly considered in environmental policy targets. We quantify regulating services provided by urban forests and evaluate their contribution to comply with policy targets of air quality and climate change mitigation in the municipality of Barcelona, Spain. We apply the i-Tree Eco model to quantify in biophysical and monetary terms the ecosystem services “air purification,” “global climate regulation,” and the ecosystem disservice “air pollution” associated with biogenic emissions. Our results show that the contribution of urban forests regulating services to abate pollution is substantial in absolute terms, yet modest when compared to overall city levels of air pollution and GHG emissions. We conclude that in order to be effective, green infrastructure-based efforts to offset urban pollution at the municipal level have to be coordinated with territorial policies at broader spatial scales.     

Asbestos: Rationale Behind A Proposed Air Quality Standard

A computerized simulation model has been developed to compute energy requirements of a limestone slurry flue gas desulfurization (FGD) system as a function of FGD system design parameters, power plant characteristics, coal properties, and sulfur dioxide emission regulation. Results are illustrated for a "base case" plant of 500 MW, burning 3.5% sulfur coal, meeting the federal new source performance standard of 1.2 lb SO₂/10⁶ Btu. The flue gas is cleaned by an electrostatic precipitator followed by a limestone FGD system with a TCA scrubbing vessel and an optimized in-line steam reheater. The total FGD system energy requirement for this case was found to be 3.4% of the total energy input to the boiler. Sensitivity analyses were then performed in which the nominal values of ten system parameters were individually varied. This caused the total FGD system energy requirement to vary between 2.5 % and 6.1 % of the gross plant output for the range of parameters tested. The most sensitive parameters were found to be scrubbing slurry pH, which affects pumping requirements, and stack gas exit temperature, which affects reheat requirements. In all cases, FGD energy requirements were minimized when the SO₂ emission standard was met by partially bypassing the scrubber. In light of the recent Clean Air Act Amendments this option may not be feasible in the future.     

The Limitations of Air Quality Standards

This paper describes a diffusion model designed to permit calculation of seasonal average concentrations of an air pollutant, in particular, sulfur dioxide. The calculations can encompass multiple sources and multiple receptors. For each receptor location the model sums the effect of all sources over a wide range of meteorological conditions. Input data include source pollutant emissions, source configuration and location, receptor location, and meteorological data expressed as a joint frequency distribution of wind direction, wind speed, stability. To determine the model’s accuracy, concentration estimates for St. Louis, Mo., are compared with measured SO₂ concentrations. The overall correlation with observed data is satisfactory. A computer program to handle the numerous calculations was written in Fortran IV language for use on an IBM 1130 computer.     

Jet Aircraft Operations: Impact on the Air Environment

This paper is directed to those concerned with the air environment and its degradation by the burden of pollution from jet aircraft operations. A summary is presented of the results of a comprehensive air pollution study of jet aircraft operations at the Los Angeles International Airport (LAX). Included in the data obtained from this study are jet engine exhaust measurements for currently used turboprop, turbojet and turbofan engines; measurements of specific contaminants in the atmosphere inside and outside of passenger terminals and ticketing areas, and in aircraft cabins during ground operations including passenger loading and taxiing prior to takeoff; also presented are ambient air measurements in a two-mile radius of the airport. An evaluation is made of the emissions of contaminants from air transport operations and all related ground activities including motor vehicles, that contribute to the total atmospheric contaminant burden at the airport.     

Biofiltration of Trichloroethylene-Contaminated Air: A Pilot Study

Abstract

This project demonstrated the biofiltration of a trichloroethylene (TCE)-contaminated airstream generated by air stripping groundwater obtained from several wells located at the Anniston Army Depot, Anniston, AL. The effects of several critical process variables were investigated to evaluate technical and economic feasibility, define operating limits and preferred operating conditions, and develop design information for a full-scale biofilter system. Long-term operation of the demonstration biofilter system was conducted to evaluate the performance and reliability of the system under variable weather conditions. Propane was used as the primary substrate necessary to induce the production of a nonspecific oxygenase. Results indicated that the process scheme used to introduce propane into the biofiltration system had a significant impact on the observed TCE removal efficiency. TCE degradation rates were dependent on the inlet contaminant concentration as well as on the loading rate. No microbial inhibition was observed at inlet TCE concentrations as high as 87 parts per million on a volume basis.     

The Impact of Computers Upon Air Pollution Research

The electronic computer has had a profound effect upon air pollution research activities. This paper discusses some of the ways in which Public Health Service scientists routinely make use of the computer. It is used as a data processor to handle the large volumes of data resulting from continuous air monitoring devices. More importantly, it is used to perform the very complex computations involved in various statistical analyses and mathematical model building. In future years computers may be used on a real-time basis to control the sources which emit pollutants to the atmosphere.