Homing in the wolf spider Lycosa tarantula (Araneae, Lycosidae): the role of active locomotion and visual landmarks

Previous studies on the homing of the wolf spider Lycosa tarantula have shown that it is carried out by path integration. Animals using this mechanism must measure the distance walked and the angles turned. This study aims to understand if wolf spider L. tarantula is able to estimate the walked distance in an outward path. As this information is more likely obtained by proprioceptive mechanisms, active or passive displacements have been performed. An active locomotion was found essential to estimate distances. During passive locomotion, spiders searched for their burrows near the release point while when displaced actively the inbound journey was longer than the outbound one. The possible use of visual landmarks near the burrow was also tested as a cue to complete the inbound journey. Our results did not show that L. tarantula used these visual landmarks to find the burrow. L. tarantula seems to use only proprioceptive information obtained during the outbound path to estimate the distance traveled.     

Efficient Transmission of an Introduced Pathogen Via an Ancient Insect-Fungus Association

 In Cupressus sempervirens the association between seed insects and tree pathogens has resulted in optimal exploitation of the cones. A fungus-infected cone can be inhabited by the nymphs of a true seed bug (Orsillus maculatus), the adults of which may carry a heavy spore load at emergence. Cones are infected when eggs are laid within the cone, most frequently via the emergence holes of a seed wasp (Megastigmus wachtli). This symbiotic association evolved with the nonaggressive fungus Pestalotiopsis funerea within the natural range of the cypress. When the aggressive cypress canker disease (Seiridium cardinale) was introduced into Europe, it was transmitted by O. maculatus to cones usually colonized by Pestalotiopsis funerea, with disastrous consequences for the regeneration and survival of C. sempervirens in the entire Mediterranean area. Received: 30 November 1998 / Accepted in revised form: 17 May 1999     

Power matters in closing the phenotyping gap

Much of our understanding of physiology and metabolism is derived from investigating mouse mutants and transgenic mice, and open-access platforms for standardized mouse phenotyping such as the German Mouse Clinic (GMC) are currently viewed as one powerful tool for identifying novel gene-function relationships. Phenotyping or phenotypic screening involves the comparison of wild-type control mice with their mutant or transgenic littermates. In our study, we explored the extent to which standardized phenotyping will succeed in detecting biologically relevant phenotypic differences in mice generated and provided by different collaborators. We analyzed quantitative metabolic data (body mass, energy intake, and energy metabolized) collected at the GMC under the current workflow, and used them for statistical power considerations. Our results demonstrate that there is substantial variability in these parameters among lines of wild-type C57BL/6 (B6) mice from different sources. Given this variable background noise in mice that serve as controls, subtle phenotypes in mutant or transgenic littermates may be overlooked. Furthermore, a phenotype observed in one cohort of a mutant line may not be reproducible (to the same extent) in mice coming from a different environment or supplier. In the light of these constraints, we encourage researchers to incorporate information on intrastrain variability into future study planning, or to perform advanced hierarchical analyses. Both will ultimately improve the detectability of novel phenotypes by phenotypic screening. Carola W. Meyer and Ralf Elvert contributed equally to this work.     

Isolation and characterization of melanopsin and pinopsin expression within photoreceptive sites of reptiles

Non-mammalian vertebrates have multiple extraocular photoreceptors, mainly localised in the pineal complex and the brain, to mediate irradiance detection. In this study, we report the full-length cDNA cloning of ruin lizard melanopsin and pinopsin. The high level of identity with opsins in both the transmembrane regions, where the chromophore binding site is located, and the intracellular loops, where the G-proteins interact, suggests that both melanopsin and pinopsin should be able to generate a stable photopigment, capable of triggering a transduction cascade mediated by G-proteins. Phylogenetic analysis showed that both opsins are located on the expected branches of the corresponding sequences of ortholog proteins. Subsequently, using RT-PCR and RPA analysis, we verified the expression of ruin lizard melanopsin and pinopsin in directly photosensitive organs, such as the lateral eye, brain, pineal gland and parietal eye. Melanopsin expression was detected in the lateral eye and all major regions of the brain. However, different from the situation in Xenopus and chicken, melanopsin is not expressed in the ruin lizard pineal. Pinopsin mRNA expression was only detected in the pineal complex. As a result of their phylogenetic position and ecology, reptiles provide the circadian field with some of the most interesting models for understanding the evolution of the vertebrate circadian timing system and its response to light. This characterization of melanopsin and pinopsin expression in the ruin lizard will be important for future studies aimed at understanding the molecular basis of circadian light detection in reptiles.     

气态甲醛致小白鼠肝脏DNA-DNA交联的研究

为了探讨气态甲醛致生物体内DNA-DNA交联效应,进一步评价甲醛的遗传毒性作用,以昆明纯系小鼠为实验材料,进行了72 h动态吸入式连续染毒,采用荧光检测法检测甲醛染毒后小鼠肝细胞DNA-DNA交联形成的效应.实验结果表明,0.5 mg·m-3的气态甲醛能引起明显的DNA-DNA交联(p＜0.05),较高浓度的甲醛(1.0mg·m-3、3.0 mg·m-3,p＜0.01)可以产生极为明显的DNA-DNA交联作用.以上实验结果显示了0.5mg·m-3的气态甲醛就能致生物体内DNA-DNA交联效应,且随着浓度的升高DNA-DNA交联率越高.     

Homing pigeons (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Columba livia</Emphasis> f. <Emphasis Type="Italic">domestica</Emphasis>) can use magnetic cues for locating food

An experimental group of homing pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica) learned to associate food with a magnetic anomaly produced by bar magnets that were fixed to the bowl in which they received their daily food ration in their home loft; the control group lacked this experience. Both groups were trained to search for two hidden food depots in a rectangular sand-filled arena without obvious visual cues; for the experimental birds, these depots were also marked with three 1.15 × 10⁶ μT bar magnets. During the tests, there were two food depots, one marked with the magnets, the other unmarked; their position within the arena was changed from test to test. The experimental birds searched within 10 cm of the magnetically marked depot in 49% of the test sessions, whereas the control birds searched there in only 11% of the sessions. Both groups searched near the control depot in 11 and 13% of the sessions, respectively. The significant preference of the magnetically marked food depot by the experimental birds shows that homing pigeons cannot only detect a magnetic anomaly but can also use it as a cue for locating hidden food in an open arena.     

鸡粪好氧堆肥氨氧化霉菌的筛选及氮转化能力的研究

为明确鸡粪好氧堆肥过程氨氧化霉菌的存在情况及其氮转化能力,以鸡粪好氧堆肥中分离的10株霉菌为对象,采用氨氧化霉菌培养基筛选氨氧化菌株;对所选菌株进行生长量及氮转化指标的测定及相关分析,以明确菌体生长与氨氧化作用的关系;对确定的高效氨氧化菌株进行氮转化能力测定,并做回归堆肥的效果验证.结果表明,所试菌株均能氧化NH4+-N生成亚硝态氮和硝态氮,证明在鸡粪好氧堆肥过程中存在氨氧化霉菌,且提示该环境的霉菌可能具有普遍的氨氧化能力;氨氧化霉菌生成的亚硝态氮和硝态氮总量、菌体干重、菌体凯氏氮量间均存在着显著的正相关;确定的2株高效氨氧化菌株M25-22(Penicilliumsp.)与M40-4(Aspergillussp.)在培养基中培养144h后,均能使NH4+-N降低0.3mg·mL-1以上,生成亚硝态氮和硝态氮总量约在1.1×10-3mg·mL-1和1.5×10-3mg·mL-1;2株菌回归堆肥后,均能使堆肥体系中NH4+-N含量明显降低,硝态氮及总氮含量明显增加,这对减少堆肥过程氮素损失具有实际意义.     

Oviposition strategies of conifer seed chalcids in relation to host phenology

Insects are considered the most important predators of seed cones, the female reproductive structures of conifers, prior to seed dispersal. Slightly more than 100 genera of insects are known to parasitize conifer seed cones. The most diverse (i.e., number of species) of these genera is Megastigmus (Hymenoptera: Torymidae), which comprises many important seed pests of native and exotic conifers. Seed chalcids, Megastigmus spp., lay eggs inside the developing ovules of host conifers and, until recently, oviposition was believed to occur only in fertilized ovules. Ovule development begins just after pollination, but stops if cells are not fertilized. The morphological stage of cone development at the time of oviposition by seed chalcids has been established for many species; however, knowledge of ovule development at that time has been documented for only one species, M. spermotrophus. Megastigmus spermotrophus oviposits in Douglas-fir ovules after pollination but before fertilization. Unlike the unfertilized ovules, those containing a M. spermotrophus larva continue to develop, whether fertilized or not, stressing the need to broaden our understanding of the insect–plant interactions for this entire genus. To achieve this task, we reviewed the scientific literature and assembled information pertaining to the timing of oviposition and to the pollination and fertilization periods of their respective host(s). More specifically, we were searching for circumstantial evidence that other species of Megastigmus associated with conifers could behave (i.e., oviposit before ovule fertilization) and impact on female gametophyte (i.e., prevent abortion) like M. spermotrophus. The evidence from our compilation suggests that seed chalcids infesting Pinaceae may also oviposit before ovule fertilization, just like M. spermotrophus, whereas those infesting Cupressaceae seemingly oviposit after ovule fertilization. Based on this evidence, we hypothesize that all species of Megastigmus associated with Pinaceae can oviposit in unfertilized ovules, whereas those exploiting Cupressaceae cannot, and thus oviposit only in already fully developed fertilized seeds. Furthermore, we predict that the presence of a larva in unfertilized ovules of all Pinaceae will influence the development of the female gametophyte by preventing its abortion. This influence on the Pinaceae can be interpreted as an ability to parasitize any of the potential seeds present in a seed cone, and as such represents a much more efficient oviposition strategy than searching and locating only fertilized seeds. Concomitantly, this ability has likely led to an overestimation of the impact of the species of seed chalcid infesting Pinaceae on seed production.     

Smog chamber study on the evolution of fume from residential coal combustion

Domestic coal stoves are widely used in countryside and greenbelt residents in China for heating and cooking, and emit considerable pollutants to the atmosphere because of no treatment of their exhaust, which can result in deteriorating local air quality. In this study, a dynamic smog chamber was used to investigate the real-time emissions of gaseous and particulate pollutants during the combustion process and a static smog chamber was used to investigate the fume evolution under simulate light irradiation. The real-time emissions revealed that the total hydrocarbon (THC) and CO increased sharply after ignition, and then quickly decreased, indicating volatilization of hydrocarbons with low molecular weight and incomplete combustion at the beginning stage of combustion made great contribution to these pollutants. There was evident shoulder peak around 10 min combustion for both THC and CO, revealing the emissions from vitrinite combustion. Additionally, another broad emission peak of CO after 30 min was also observed, which was ascribed to the incomplete combustion of the inertinite. Compared with THC and CO, there was only one emission peak for NOx, SO₂ and particular matters at the beginning stage of combustion. The fume evolution with static chamber simulation indicated that evident consumption of SO₂ and NOx as well as new particle formation were observed. The consumption rates for SO₂ and NOx were about 3.44% hr^-1 and 3.68% hr^-1, the new particle formation of nuclei particles grew at a rate of 16.03 nm/hr during the first reaction hour, and the increase of the diameter of accumulation mode particles was evident. The addition of isoprene to the diluted mixture of the fume could promote O₃ and secondary particle formation.     

四环素抗生素对污泥中四环素抗性基因丰度和表达水平的作用影响

为研究四环素(TC)抗生素对其抗性基因(TC-ARGs)转录表达的作用影响,以从活性污泥中筛选获得的四环素抗性细菌(TRB)作为研究对象,采用荧光定量PCR和逆转录PCR方法检测了7种TC-ARGs,包括tet A、tet C、tet G、tet M、tet O、tet W和tet X基因的丰度和表达水平,并探讨了TC与TC-ARGs丰度及其表达水平之间的相关关系.结果表明,在整个培养周期内,tet A、tet G和tet W基因丰度随TC暴露浓度的增大总体呈现上升趋势,但其余TC-ARGs基因丰度整体波动较大. TC胁迫对不同TC-ARGs的转录表达水平作用影响差别较大,其中,tet A基因表达水平相对稳定,且随TC浓度的升高而上调,在TC浓度为100 mg·L~(-1)时,其上调倍数高达5. 3倍.在短期(1 d) TC胁迫下,TC-ARGs转录表达水平随TC浓度的升高整体呈现上调趋势.由相关性分析可知,tet A和tet W基因丰度与其转录表达水平之间存在显著的线性相关性,表明其基因丰度可在一定程度上衡量和评价其抗性表达水平,进而反映其功能活性和环境风险.     

Retinal cryptochrome in a migratory passerine bird: a possible transducer for the avian magnetic compass

The currently discussed model of magnetoreception in birds proposes that the direction of the magnetic field is perceived by radical-pair processes in specialized photoreceptors, with cryptochromes suggested as potential candidate molecules mediating magnetic compass information. Behavioral studies have shown that magnetic compass orientation takes place in the eye and requires light from the blue-green part of the spectrum. Cryptochromes are known to absorb in the same spectral range. Because of this we searched for cryptochrome (CRY) in the retina of European robins, Erithacus rubecula, passerine birds that migrate at night. Here, we report three individually expressed cryptochromes, eCRY1a, eCRY1b, and eCRY2. While eCRY1a and eCRY2 are similar to the cryptochromes found in the retina of the domestic chicken, eCRY1b has a unique carboxy (C)-terminal. In light of the radical-pair model, our findings support a potential role of cryptochromes as transducers for the perception of magnetic compass information in birds.     

The armoured dissorophid Cacops from the Early Permian of Oklahoma and the exploitation of the terrestrial realm by amphibians

Cacops, one of the most distinctive Paleozoic amphibians, is part of a clade of dissorophoid temnospondyls that diversified in the equatorial region of Pangea during the Late Carboniferous and Early Permian, persisting into the Late Permian in Central Russia and China. Dissorophids were a successful group of fully terrestrial, often spectacularly armoured predators, the only amphibians apparently able to coexist with amniotes when the latter started to dominate terrestrial ecosystems. In this paper, we describe excellent new skulls from the Early Permian of Oklahoma attributed to Cacops, Cacops morrisi sp. nov. and provide for the first time detailed information about this iconic dissorophid. These specimens show anatomical and ontogenetic features that will impact on future studies on the evolution of terrestriality in tetrapods. For example, the large, posteriorly closed tympanic embayment has fine striations on an otherwise smooth surface, documenting the oldest known clear evidence for the presence of a tympanic membrane in the fossil record, a structure that is used for hearing airborne sound in extant tetrapods. The skull of C. morrisi also has several features associated with predatory behaviour, indicating that this dissorophid may have been one of the top terrestrial predators of its time.     

The brain as a photoreceptor: intracerebral ocelli in the firefly

 This paper deals with the structure and function of the intracerebral ocelli in the caudal area of the brain of the Japanese firefly. A pair of epilaterally placed specialized pigmented organs was found at the caudal ends of the brains of the fireflies Luciola cruciata and L. lateralis. On the basis of light and transmission electron micrographs of both male and female individuals these organs seemed photoreceptive in nature. Intracellular and extracellular recordings were obtained from the intracerebral ocelli of the fireflies with microelectrodes. The physiological evidence revealed that the cells found in the brain were, indeed, photoreceptors. Received: 7 April 2000 / Accepted in revised form: 16 June 2000     

四环素胁迫对Shigella flexneri细菌四环素抗性基因抗性表达的影响过程

四环素(TC)抗生素在不同环境介质中已被广泛检出,为研究其对四环素抗性基因(TC-ARGs)丰度变化及表达水平的影响过程,以从活性污泥中筛选和纯化分离获得的弗氏志贺氏菌(Shigella flexneri)为研究对象,考察了不同浓度TC对其生长过程的作用影响,采用荧光定量PCR和逆转录PCR方法定量检测了不同抗性机制TC-ARGs,包括tetC、tetO和tetX基因的丰度变化及表达水平,并探讨了TC浓度与TC-ARGs丰度及其表达水平之间的相关关系.结果表明,在培养周期内(24 h),TC胁迫对Shigella flexneri细菌的生长具有抑制作用,细菌细胞浓度增长速率随TC暴露浓度的升高而降低,但对TC-ARGs丰度变化影响较小.TC胁迫能够促进Shigella flexneri细菌TC-ARGs的转录表达,tetC、tetO和tetX基因表达水平在整个培养周期内均先升高后降低.由相关性分析可知,TC浓度与TC-ARGs丰度及其表达水平之间相关关系不显著,但tetC和tetO基因丰度与其转录表达水平之间存在显著的正相关关系,表明其基因丰度一定程度上可用来衡量和评价其抗性表达水平.     

利用黑碳仪获取北京市冬季气溶胶吸光系数的方法研究

黑碳仪是最常用的气溶胶吸光碳测试仪器,但其测得的吸光性能受到滤膜多重散射效应、颗粒物散射效应、颗粒物遮蔽效应的影响,只能算是b_ATN（光衰减系数）,而不是b_in-situ（原位吸光系数）.虽然已有学者提出几种将b_ATN转换为b_cor（校正后吸光系数）的算法,但多是基于实验室模拟或高海拔地区气溶胶而开展的,与我国城市的气溶胶在理化性质方面有明显差别.为探索我国城市气溶胶将b_ATN转换为b_cor的问题,于2016—2017年冬季在北京市城区使用黑碳仪及光声消光仪分别测量b_ATN和b_in-situ,在分析多种算法的基础上,提出了面向城市气溶胶的校正方法.结果显示:在我国北方城市（以北京市为例）,适应城市气溶胶的f值（遮蔽因子,为计算遮蔽校正系数的一个参数）为1.13,C（综合散射效应系数）为5.44;使用这些校正系数,将观测点由黑碳仪获取的b_ATN转换为b_cor.与光声消光仪测定的b_in-situ对比发现,无论是滤膜样点周期内还是长期观测时间内,b_cor与b_in-situ均呈一致性,其中,长期观测时间内二者的相关性表达为y=0.954x+0.829（r2为0.996）,证明了校正方法的有效性和可信性.研究显示,b_cor与b_in-situ整体相关性较高,并且获得了本地化的校正因子,实现了仅通过黑碳仪获取准确颗粒物吸光系数的目的.      

土壤重金属生物可利用性影响因素及模型预测

我国土壤环境污染形势严峻,在生物有效性(bioavailability)的测试评估和预测模型等方面的研究相对较少,导致不能精确地评估污染土壤的生态风险.作为生物有效性的重要反映指标,对土壤中镉(Cd)、砷(As)、铜(Cu)、锌(Zn)和铅(Pb)的生物可利用性(bioaccessibility)进行研究.筛选了已发表论文中生物可利用性与所对应的土壤性质的数据,并分析了它们之间的潜在关系,总结了现有的土壤重金属生物可利用性的测试方法,探究了生物可利用性含量与测试方法以及生物有效性含量之间的影响规律,并建立了生物可利用性含量的回归预测模型.结果表明,生物可利用性含量与重金属总含量间呈极显著(P<0.01)的正相关关系,与土壤pH相关性显著(P<0.05).测试方法的不同对生物可利用性含量有明显的影响,各测试方法测定的生物可利用性含量占比规律为：体外胃肠道模拟>化学试剂提取.各测试方法测定的Cd和Pb的生物可利用性含量占比均较高(均值分别为42.12%和37.33%),说明Cd和Pb较易于被生物体吸收,也应关注由此造成的生态风险.基于生物类型对测试方法进行了分组,以削弱不...     

From repulsion to attraction: species- and spatial context-dependent threat sensitive response of the spider mite Tetranychus urticae to predatory mite cues

Prey perceiving predation risk commonly change their behavior to avoid predation. However, antipredator strategies are costly. Therefore, according to the threat-sensitive predator avoidance hypothesis, prey should match the intensity of their antipredator behaviors to the degree of threat, which may depend on the predator species and the spatial context. We assessed threat sensitivity of the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, to the cues of three predatory mites, Phytoseiulus persimilis, Neoseiulus californicus, and Amblyseius andersoni, posing different degrees of risk in two spatial contexts. We first conducted a no-choice test measuring oviposition and activity of T. urticae exposed to chemical traces of predators or traces plus predator eggs. Then, we tested the site preference of T. urticae in choice tests, using artificial cages and leaves. In the no-choice test, T. urticae deposited their first egg later in the presence of cues of P. persimilis than of the other two predators and cue absence, indicating interspecific threat-sensitivity. T. urticae laid also fewer eggs in the presence of cues of P. persimilis and A. andersoni than of N. californicus and cue absence. In the artificial cage test, the spider mites preferred the site with predator traces, whereas in the leaf test, they preferentially resided on leaves without traces. We argue that in a nonplant environment, chemical predator traces do not indicate a risk for T. urticae, and instead, these traces function as indirect habitat cues. The spider mites were attracted to these cues because they associated them with the existence of a nearby host plant.     

Characterization of aerosol optical properties, chemical composition and mixing states in the winter season in Shanghai, China

Physical and chemical properties of ambient aerosols at the single particle level were studied in Shanghai from December 22 to 28, 2009. A Cavity-Ring-Down Aerosol Extinction Spectrometer（CRD-AES） and a nephelometer were deployed to measure aerosol light extinction and scattering properties, respectively. An Aerosol Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometer（ATOFMS）was used to detect single particle sizes and chemical composition. Seven particle types were detected. Air parcels arrived at the sampling site from the vicinity of Shanghai until mid-day of December 25, when they started to originate from North China. The aerosol extinction,scattering, and absorption coefficients all dropped sharply when this cold, clean air arrived.Aerosol particles changed from a highly aged type before this meteorological shift to a relatively fresh type afterwards. The aerosol optical properties were dependent on the wind direction.Aerosols with high extinction coefficient and scattering Angstrom exponent（SAE） were observed when the wind blew from the west and northwest, indicating that they were predominantly fine particles. Nitrate and ammonium correlated most strongly with the change in aerosol optical properties. In the elemental carbon/organic carbon（ECOC） particle type, the diurnal trends of single scattering albedo（SSA） and elemental carbon（EC） signal intensity had a negative correlation. We also found a negative correlation（r =-0.87） between high mass-OC particle number fraction and the SSA in a relatively clean period, suggesting that particulate aromatic components might play an important role in light absorption in urban areas.     

Regional,seasonal and interspecific variation in <Superscript>15</Superscript>N and <Superscript>13</Superscript>C in sympatric mouse lemurs

Madagascar provides some of the rare examples where two or more primate species of the same genus and with seemingly identical niche requirements occur in sympatry. If congeneric primate species co-occur in other parts of the world, they differ in size in a way that is consistent with Hutchinson’s rule for coexisting species, or they occupy different ecological niches. In some areas of Madagascar, mouse lemurs do not follow these “rules” and thus seem to violate one of the principles of community ecology. In order to understand the mechanisms that allow coexistence of sympatric congeneric species without obvious niche differentiation, we studied food composition of two identical sized omnivorous mouse lemur species, Microcebus griseorufus and M. murinus with the help of stable isotope analyses (δ ¹⁵N and δ ¹³C). The two species are closely related sister species. During the rich season, when food seems abundant, the two species do not differ in their nitrogen isotope composition, indicating that the two species occupy the same trophic level. But they differ in their δ ¹³C values, indicating that M. griseorufus feeds more on C₄ and CAM (Crassulacean-acid-metabolism) plants than M. murinus. During the lean season, M. murinus has lower δ ¹⁵N values, indicating that the two species feed at different trophic levels during times of food shortage. Hybrids between the two species showed intermediate food composition. The results reflect subtle differences in foraging or metabolic adaptations that are difficult to quantify by traditional observations but that represent possibilities to allow coexistence of species.     

Spatial heterogeneity of vegetation under different grazing intensities in the Northwest Heilongjiang Steppe of China

In northern China, recent degradation of semi-arid grasslands caused by overgrazing is serious. At Green Grassland Village, west of Daqing City in Heilongjiang Province, three grasslands with different degrees of degradation were surveyed. In the survey, a new method of vegetation analysis based on the beta-binomial distribution, was adopted to describe the frequency of occurrence and spatial heterogeneity for each plant species.Chenopodium centrorubrum, Cleistogenes squarrosa and a Carex species were commonly found in the three grasslands. Non-degraded grassland with light grazing was dominated by Arundinella hirta, Filifolium sibiricium, Lespedeza hedysaroides, Potentilla verticillaris, Stipa baicalensis and Thymus serpyllum. These species belong to the erect-type or do not develop large clones under light grazing. These species can be used as indicators of a well-managed grassland in this area. On the other hand, the degraded grassland with heavy grazing was dominated by Artemisia spp. and Euphorbia humifusa var. pilosa. Artemisia spp., E. humifusa var. pilosa, Eragrostis pilosa and Setaria viridis belong to the creeping-type or develop rather large stocks or stolons under heavy utilization. These species increased the spatial heterogeneity in the degraded grassland with heavy grazing.Under degraded conditions, species diversity decreased and spatial heterogeneity of the communities tended to increase.