The Worldwide Availability of Gold

This paper summarizes Bureau of Mines research relating to the state of the world gold industry. The authors discuss the world gold industry structure, demonstrated gold resources, current production, and the long-term cost and availability of potential future gold production.
The long-term cost and availability of primary gold production from 111 significant producing mines and developing deposits in 13 market economy countries (MECs) is evaluated. Total recoverable gold available (as of January 1984) from the evaluated mines and deposits is estimated at 819 million troy ounces. The Republic of South Africa is estimated to account for 87% of total recoverable gold. The USA and Canada account for 4% and 4.5% of the total, respectively. Eighty-three per cent of total recoverable gold is available at a constant 1984 break-even price of $400 per ounce, and 70% is available at $300 per ounce. South Africa accounts for 90% of the gold available at $400 per ounce or less. Gold resources in the Soviet Union and China are discussed but not evaluated for costs of production. Some conclusions of the analyses are that South Africa should remain the largest world producer until the year 2000 and annual MEC output in the year 2000 should not be significantly different from current output, given constant 1984 gold prices of more than $300 per ounce.     

The availability of primary nickel from the market economy countries

The US Bureau of Mines has determined the potential availability of nickel from 36 deposits or districts in 16 market economy countries (MECs). More than 95% of production in MECs was analysed. The study indicates the quantity of nickel available in resources and potential annual production at net production costs and on a total cost basis with a 0% and a 10% discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFROR). The properties included in this study contain approximately 33 million tonnes of recoverable nickel. About 26 million tonnes of nickel is potentially recoverable from nickel laterite deposits, of which 4.5 million tonnes can be produced at $2.50/lb or less with a 0% DCFROR. Approximately 7 million tonnes of nickel is potentially recoverable from nickel sulphide deposits of which about 6.3 million tonnes could be produced at $2.50/lb or less at a 0% DCFROR. Sensitivity studies indicate that the total cost of producing nickel from laterite deposits is most sensitive to increases in energy costs, and that the total costs of producing nickel from sulphide deposits is most sensitive to increases in labour costs and by changes in byproduct revenues.     

Modification of ecological footprint evaluation method to include non-renewable resource consumption using thermodynamic approach

This study is to modify the ecological footprint methodology by incorporating non-renewable or abiotic resources as an additional category. The use of abiotic resources can be quantified as global hectare by using thermodynamic approaches. A detailed case study on various countries including Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Japan, USA, and Vietnam shows the advantage of using the new modified ecological footprint (EF) as an indicator for sustainable development. The modified EF includes not only biotic resources, but also the abiotic resources. The case study indicates that the modified EF differs from the traditional EF up to 123% in the case of Belgium, and 90% in the case of Australia. For developing countries such as Brazil and Vietnam, the differences are relatively smaller (21% for Brazil and 9.4% for Vietnam). The estimated total ecological footprint of the world using the new method implies more serious problems associated with over consumption than using results from the original ecological footprint method.     

Modification of ecological footprint evaluation method to include non-renewable resource consumption using thermodynamic approach

This study is to modify the ecological footprint methodology by incorporating non-renewable or abiotic resources as an additional category. The use of abiotic resources can be quantified as global hectare by using thermodynamic approaches. A detailed case study on various countries including Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Japan, USA, and Vietnam shows the advantage of using the new modified ecological footprint (EF) as an indicator for sustainable development. The modified EF includes not only biotic resources, but also the abiotic resources. The case study indicates that the modified EF differs from the traditional EF up to 123% in the case of Belgium, and 90% in the case of Australia. For developing countries such as Brazil and Vietnam, the differences are relatively smaller (21% for Brazil and 9.4% for Vietnam). The estimated total ecological footprint of the world using the new method implies more serious problems associated with over consumption than using results from the original ecological footprint method.     

The worldwide availability of cobalt

The US Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines has evaluated the potential resource and annual availability of cobalt from 27 deposits or districts in 11 market economy countries. More than 90% of primary cobalt production from market economy countries, mainly by-product output from copper and nickel operations, was analysed. The producing operations evaluated in this study were expected to produce about 19 000 t of cobalt in 1989, significantly less than the available capacity of 31 000 t. Approximately 1200 000 t of cobalt is potentially recoverable at the demonstrated resource level. Very large additional resources exist, especially in laterite deposits, but are at the inferred level.     

WORLD ENERGY RESOURCES - LIMITS FROM TODAY'S GEOLOGICAL STANDPOINT

World fossil energy resources are estimated at about 12,500 times 10⁹ tons of coal equivalent (t.c.e.) of which 900 times 10⁹ t.c.e. are classed as presently recoverable reserves. Future exploration will transform a substantial part of the resources into reserves. Coal is by far the dominant fossil energy. Oilshales and tarsands represent a large energy potential, whose utilization depends on a high energy price level and progress in production technologies. Limits in the availability of oil and gas are visible now for the first time. Low-cost, high-grade uranium reserves are also limited. However, there are large amounts of low-grade uranium resources, which might become recoverable in the future. The use of geothermal energy is currently troubled by problems of technology, costs and environment.     

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES: THE CASE OF BRAZIL

Industrial nations have based their economic and social development on the use of fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and natural gas). This trend is being followed by many developing countries which have neither the natural resources nor the manpower to adopt this path. As a result one finds in many of these countries 'islands of prosperity' (based on consumption patterns copied from industrial nations) surrounded by a 'sea of poverty.' The problems resulting from this dual social structure are obvious in many parts of the world. It is argued here that renewable energy sources are a natural basis for the development of the poorer countries and that intelligent use of hydropower, biomass and direct solar energy can shortcut many of the problems faced today by industrial nations. The case of Brazil is analyzed as one of the countries in which these solutions are being tried.     

Economic rent : Incidence in selected metals and minerals

The magnitude of the ‘economic rent’ and its distribution among producing countries, mineral exploitation companies and consumers has become a dominant issue in national and international policy formulation, but the difficulties in measuring the rent add to the problems of determining its equitable distribution. This paper examines the nature of the rent and estimates its incidence in bauxite, copper, iron ore, phosphate rock, tin and petroleum. Rents were found to be low for bauxite and iron ore. Bauxite, phosphates and petroleum producers have increased their share of the rent, though this trend now seems to be reversing for bauxite and phosphates. Only in tin, and to a lesser extent petroleum, have the exporting countries captured significant shares in total rent. Otherwise, the rent is largely concentrated at the processing stage, which suggests that processing plant would have to shift to the producing countries if they are to claim a larger share.     

The relationship between resources and living standards

Available estimates of potentially recoverable world mineral and fuel resources are examined with a view to determining whether everyone likely to be living on earth next century could be raised to the material living standards people in developed countries now have. It is concluded that this goal is impossible. A number of fundamentally important implications follow, especially regarding the inappropriateness of growth strategies in general, goals for Third World development, and the need for ‘de-development’ of developed countries to much more frugal, self-sufficient and cooperative social systems.     

Brazil's National Atlantic Forest Policy: A Challenge for State-level Environmental Planning. The Case of Santa Catarina,Brazil

Formulating effective national forest policy in lesser developed countries is complex and needs to take into account the social as well as the biophysical dimensions which impact on forest resources. Deforestation continues to be a serious concern in many of these countries and most national forest policy seeks to curb the devastationof forest resources. Due to different social groups competing for use of the forest resources, however, designing effective policy is challenging. The needs of these different social groups must be considered.Unless this is done, the forest policy itself can be an impetus for deforestation.In the southern Brazilian state of Santa Catarina, deforestation in the Atlantic forest (Mata Atlantica) is occurring at a rapid rate, threatening the richness of biodiversity. There are a number of causes for deforestation in Santa Catarina, one being Brazil's national Atlantic forest policy. Unintentionally, the structure of this conservation-focusedpolicy has declared all of Santa Catarina's native forests off-limits to any type of exploitation, the only state in Brazil where this has occurred, and has actually precipitated deforestation. Challenges for state-level planning include addressing the national forest policy as well as the state-levelimpacts resulting from the policy. The history of the policy, the social groups affected and challenges for planning are discussed, as are proposed solutions.     

Potentially recoverable resources: How recoverable?

There are a number of factors which are likely to limit the proportion of potentially recoverable resources that will actually be recovered. The most important of these concern the way minerals are distributed within the crust and trends in energy costs associated with mineral production. This article offers a pessimistic view of the prospects for mineral supplies early in the 21st century. The resource situation is even less hopeful when the possibility of extending the material living standards of the developed countries to everyone likely to be living on earth late next century is considered.     

The Worldwide Availability of Fluorspar

This paper reviews a recent assessment of fluorspar reserves and resources for 13 market economy countries and the People's Republic of China, and how they relate to the overall availability of fluorspar on the world market. Current world production, consumption and world trade issues are discussed.
Nearly 5 million tonnes of fluorspar were produced in 1985, and approximately 60% of that enters the world export market. In recent years world trade has started to shift away from the acid, metallurgical and ceramic grades of fluorspar, as ore-producing countries look towards higher-value downstream products.
Total potentially recoverable fluorspar from 52 major producing mines and deposits is estimated at nearly 95 million tonnes (as of January 1985). The Republic of South Africa accounts for 31% of the reserves, with Mexico and the People's Republic of China each contributing 18%.
The average total cost and availability of fluorspar is evaluated. Approximately 75% of acid-grade fluorspar evaluated is potentially available at or below a 1985 constant-dollar cost of US$110 tonne⁻¹. Nearly 94% of metallurgical grades are potentially available at costs of US$75 tonne⁻¹ and below, and virtually all of the ceramic grades could be produced at costs below the 1985 reported market price of US$103 tonne⁻¹.     

An econometric model of the international bauxite-aluminium economy

This simultaneous equation model emphasizes oligopolistic and vertical integration features, and conflict between companies and some bauxite producer country governments. Estimates do not support Koyck lags, or big gaps between long- and short-term elasticities. Strongest influence is industrial activity in advanced countries. Price and substitution elasticities are low. With an 11 year horizon, cartelization gains are high. In the longer term, Australia's participation in, or exclusion from the cartel, and cartelization gains, are strictly interdependent, and dependent on Australia following policies as a bauxite producer, or, more realistically, as an aluminum producer (which makes cartel perspectives poor).     

Japan's develop-for-import policy

Much of the world's remaining mineral resources lie within the underdeveloped nations of the Third World. The current crisis of confidence characterized in international investment and trade in extractive resources has become detrimental to both the resource-rich developing countries and the resource-hungry industrialized countries. Japan is one nation that has developed a strategy to foster mutual trust and to restore confidence in the international extractive industries. This paper examines Japan's develop-for-import policy, ‘kaihatsu yunso’, and its design, implementation and effects on securing foreign resources supplies.     

The Worldwide Availability of Phosphate Rock

The US Bureau of Mines has investigated the resource potential of 201 phosphate mines and depositee in 28 market economy countries and 17 mines and deposits in the USSR and China. The 201 mines and deposits contain an estimated 34.2 billiong tonnes (t) of recoverable phosphate rock (at the demonstrated resource level), with Morocco and Western Sahara accounting for 61% (21 billion t) and with the USA accounting for 19% (6.4 billion t). The 17 mines and deposits evaluated in the USSR and China contain approximately 1.5 billion t of potentially recoverable phosphate rock. Potential annual capacity from low-cost, high-grade producing mines in the USA is estimated to decline significantly during the latter half of the next decade, and the US phosphate fertilizer industry will have to obtain phosphate rock by developing new, higher-cost, lower-grade mines or import phosphate rock to satisfy anticipated demand in the next century. Of the world's new production capacity that are likely to be developed over the next decade, slightly over one-third could be produced at an estimated 1981 cost of $40/t or less, and about two-thirds would cost in the $40 to $50 per tonne range (including a 15% rate of return). In comparison, most of the competing phosphate rock from producing mines in Morocco could be produced for less than $40/t.     

The Future of Large, Low Grade, Hard-rock Tin Deposits

The price of tin is at historically low levels and tin is in oversupply. Present production is largely from alluvial deposits worked mainly by small- and medium-sized producers. These producers, often undercaptilized and working deposits of declining grade, are faced with rising production costs. It is expected that many will cease production in the future. Interest is therefore beginning to focus on the viability of exploiting large hard-rock tin deposits amenable to low-cost bulk mining methods. Among the countries which appear to have very large reserves of hard-rock tin deposits is China, and it is anticipated that in the future China will be a major supplier of tin.     

浅谈电子废物变废为宝的绿色途径

电子废弃物已成为城市环境的新压力。本文从加强立法、生产者负责制以及建立健康绿色的废旧电子回收体系三方面分析电子废物变废为宝的绿色途径,从而推动电子废物资源化、无害化发展。     

Seabed resources and international law

This article outlines the problems related to the exploitation and allocation of undersea resources. The nature and accessibility of undersea petroleum supplies and metalliferous nodules are described in terms of the existing and prospective future economic constraints. Since the majority of such resources lie outside national jurisdictions, their ownership has recently become a major source of international conflict. The character of that conflict is explained, and the prospective solutions under international law are identified. Unilateral action on the part of countries possessing the requisite technologies to exploit these resources is viewed as the most probable near-term outlook, even though it may not satisfy very many aspects of international equity.     

A quantitative estimate of potential aluminium recovery from incineration bottom ashes

The recovery of ferrous and non ferrous metals from the bottom ashes is a common practice in the most part of Europe, both for the environmental advantages of their recycle and to avoid problems of swelling and expansion that metals can cause when bottom ashes are reused in concrete production or in road construction. This paper focuses on metal recovery from bottom ashes produced in Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) incinerators, with a particular focus on aluminium. A forecasting model was developed in order to evaluate the quantity of aluminium scraps recoverable from the bottom ashes. The model was applied to the Italian situation but its validity can be extended to other countries. Focusing on Italy, by applying conventional technologies for the separation of non-ferrous metals, the amount of aluminium potentially recoverable from bottom ashes is estimated in the range from 16,500 to 21,000 tonnes at the year 2015, and from 19,000 to 28,500 tonnes at 2020.     

PETROLEUM IMPORTING DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A NEW OIL FRONTIER

The majority of developing countries depend on imported petroleum to fulfil most of their energy requirements. Many are not able to do so without substantial assistance from abroad. Meanwhile, various studies indicate the existence of a large undiscovered potential of petroleum resources in these countries. In the following article, the authors review some of the proposals for assistance to petroleum importing developing countries, and, at the same time, launch their own proposal for a modest exploration programme in the least developed countries which could enable them to become self-sufficient in petroleum in the near future.