Recreation benefits of natural area characteristics at the El Yunque National Forest

The paper applies the Contingent Valuation Method using a visitor survey to determine trip values to three rivers in northeastern Puerto Rico. Sample data were obtained from 984 interviews conducted in 13 sites during the summer months. The trip value is statistically decomposed into components representing natural features and recreation activities. The median net economic value of a river visit without waterfalls or foot trails is $96. Recreation at rivers with both waterfalls and foot trails has a median value of $138 per trip. The presence of waterfalls accounts for $23 and foot trails $19 per trip. This information can be pertinent for managers in selecting recreation site locations and protecting them from competing uses.     

MODELING INSTREAM RECREATIONAL BENEFITS1

ABSTRACT: A basic problem in the management of rivers has been how to balance the tradeoffs between instream and out-of-stream uses. Traditionally, the problem has been addressed by optimizing the economic benefits of flow diversions and regulated releases with instream uses as a flow constraint. An alternative method is to model the effect different river flows have on various recreational uses (e.g., boating, fishing) and then use the results as an additional function or piece of information to determine river project operations and benefits. A methodology that is based on multiobjective decision theory and that relates instream recreational preferences to river flow is proposed. The methodology consists of determining, standardizing, and combining recreational benefit functions, and incorporating potential sources of uncertainty into an estimate of total instream benefits. Thus different types of flow patterns, resulting from reservoir regulation (out-of-stream water uses), can be analyzed to determine their potential instream impact. The methodology is applied to the New River Gorge, West Virginia, which has been designated as a National River.     

A System Method for the Assessment of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Mountain Watershed Areas: The Case of the “Giffre” Watershed (France)

In the last fifty years, many mountain watersheds in temperate countries have known a progressive change from self-standing agro-silvo-pastoral systems to leisure dominated areas characterized by a concentration of tourist accommodations, leading to a drinking water peak during the winter tourist season, when the water level is lowest in rivers and sources. The concentration of water uses increases the pressure on “aquatic habitats” and competition between uses themselves. Consequently, a new concept was developed following the international conferences in Dublin (International Conference on Water and the Environment – ICWE) and Rio de Janeiro (UN Conference on Environment and Development), both in 1992, and was broadly acknowledged through international and European policies. It is the concept of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM). It meets the requirements of different uses of water and aquatic zones whilst preserving the natural functions of such areas and ensuring a satisfactory economic and social development. This paper seeks to evaluate a local water resources management system in order to implement it using IWRM in mountain watersheds. The assessment method is based on the systemic approach to take into account all components influencing a water resources management system at the watershed scale. A geographic information system was built to look into interactions between water resources, land uses, and water uses. This paper deals specifically with a spatial comparison between hydrologically sensitive areas and land uses. The method is applied to a French Alps watershed: the Giffre watershed (a tributary of the Arve in Haute-Savoie). The results emphasize both the needs and the gaps in implementing IWRM in vulnerable mountain regions.     

Monetary assessment of the recreational benefits of improved water quality – description of a new model and a case study

The European Union Water Framework Directive (WFD) has created a demand for comparing the benefits and costs of the remedial measures. A major part of the benefits from improved water quality relate to the increased recreational value. However, there is a lack of easily operative and widely applicable quantitative methods to assess the benefits of improved water quality for recreational use. We present a new model to link physical indicators of water quality, water feasibility indicators for different recreational uses, individuals’ perceptions concerning the current feasibility of water for recreational purposes and monetary measures of water-related recreation benefits. The model has been applied to nine lakes, three rivers and one large coastal area in Finland. In this paper, we present the principles of the method and the results from one case study. In Finland, the method has been applied for the economic analysis required in the WFD.     

Forests and competing land uses in Kenya

Indigenous forests in Kenya, as in other developing countries, are under heavy pressure from competing agricultural land uses and from unsustainable cutting. The problem in Kenya is compounded by high population growth rates and an agriculturally based economy, which, even with efforts to control birth rates and industrialize, will persist into the next century. Both ecological and economic consequences of these pressures need to be considered in land-use decision making for land and forest management to be effective. This paper presents one way to combine ecological and economic considerations. The status of principal forest areas in Kenya is summarized and competing land uses compared on the basis of ecological functions and economic analysis. Replacement uses do not match the ecological functions of forest, although established stands of tree crops (forest plantations, fuel wood, tea) can have roughly comparable effects on soil and water resources. Indigenous forests have high, although difficult to estimate, economic benefits from tourism and protection of downstream agricultural productivity. Economic returns from competing land uses range widely, with tea having the highest and fuel wood plantations having returns comparable to some annual crops and dairying. Consideration of ecological and economic factors together suggests some trade-offs for improving land allocation decisions and several management opportunities for increasing benefits or reducing costs from particular land uses. The evaluation also suggests a general strategy for forest land management in Kenya.The views and interpretations expressed in this article are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank, its affiliated organizations, or any individual acting on their behalf.     

城市河流近自然治理--概念构架与治理设计

河流是城市生态系统的重要组成部分,是城市的自然元素和景观组分,具有提供水生生物生境和水源、调节小气候、美化城市、休闲娱乐等多种生态服务功能.随着城市化进程的飞速发展,城市河流生态系统面临着生物多样性减少、污染加剧等多方面的危害.如何恢复受损的城市河流生态系统已经成为我们的当务之急.对城市河流的生态结构及其在城市中的生态功能进行了简要介绍,讨论了河流生态恢复的近自然方法,并对现有的河流生态恢复存在的问题及发展趋势提出了几点看法.     

Application of Multiobjective Programming to Water Quality Management in a River Basin

In this work on the management of water quality in a river basin by means of multiobjective programming, the programming model consists of three objectives that include simultaneously both economic and environmental factors. These objectives are the water quality of the rivers, the cost of wastewater treatment and the assimilative capacity of the rivers. In particular, this research is the first to take into account the last objective. For practical application, this paper proposes two methods of multiobjective programming, the constraint method and the step method. Furthermore, to illustrate the application of these techniques to water quality management problems, we use the basin of Tzeng-Wen River, Taiwan, as a case study. The results show that these methods work satisfactorily to improve the water quality, to ascertain the economic cost of wastewater treatment, and to allocate allowable loading in a manner of equality from non-inferior solutions. Alternatively, these methods provide important information for regulatory agencies to implement pollution control of river water.     

ESTABLISHING PRIORITIES IN MINE DRAINAGE REDUCTION A COST-EFFECTIVENESS APPROACH1

ABSTRACT Twenty-seven watersheds in the Susquehanna River Basin are severely degraded by acid mine drainage pollution. Approximately 620 miles of significant tributaries as well as 230 miles of principal rivers are either sterile or intermittently degraded by acid slugs. As a result of the acid discharges, many uses of the streams, such as water supply and recreation, are precluded. In the past, acid mine drainage abatement programs did not look beyond the immediate problem area. No considerations were given to the blending effect of natural alkalinity in other streams. Since the abatement of acid mine drainage pollution is extremely costly, a method of minimizing these costs was needed. The systematic, cost-effectiveness approach, discussed in this paper presents such a method. This system allows the water resources planners to control the allocation of funds for maximizing the abatement of acid mine drainage.     

ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF GUIDED WHITEWATER RAFTING: A STUDY OF FIVE RIVERS1

ABSTRACT: This paper presents estimates of the statewide economic impacts of guided whitewater rafting on five rivers in six states: the Nantahala (North Carolina), Gauley (West Virginia), Kennebec (Maine), Middle Fork of the Salmon (Idaho), and Chattooga (Georgia-South Carolina). Except for the Chattooga and Middle Fork, rafting is dependent on upstream dam releases. Guide fees range from about $15 per trip on the Nantahala to over $1,000 on the Middle Fork. Economic impacts per nonresident 1000 visitors increase along with length of the rafting trip and remoteness of the river. Total industrial output per 1000 nonresident visitors ranged from $95,000 on the Nantahala to over $2.5 million on the Middle Fork. However, because of differences in annual visitation levels, total impacts were greatest at the Nantahala, at over $14 million in 1993. Multipliers for all economic measures were relatively consistent over the rivers. Employment multipliers (Type III) ranged from 1.67 to 1.90, income multipliers from 2.0 to 2.4, and industrial output multipliers from 2.1 to 2.5.     

FLOOD HAZARD IDENTIFICATION AND FLOOD PLAIN MANAGEMENT ON ALLUVIAL FANS1

ABSTRACT: Recognition of the flood hazard that exists on alluvial fans has seriously lagged behind the recognition of other more conventional flood hazards such as those associated with most rivers. This delay in recognition was due, until recently, to a general lack of economic investment and development in these areas and a concomitant lack of historical alluvial fan flood damage. Dramatic recent events, such as Tropical Storm Kathleen, emphasized to the Federal Insurance Administration (FIA) the need for developing an appropriate methodology to identify flood hazard areas on alluvial fans. This paper presents the methodology now employed by FIA as well as flood plain management considerations that could reduce future flood related damage to communities developing in these areas.     

A new and integrated hydro-economic accounting and analytical framework for water resources: a case study for North China

Water is a critical issue in China for a variety of reasons. China is poor of water resources with 2300m(3) of per capita availability, which is less than 13 of the world average. This is exacerbated by regional differences; e.g. North China's water availability is only about 271m(3) of per capita value, which is only 125 of the world's average. Furthermore, pollution contributes to water scarcity and is a major source for diseases, particularly for the poor. The Ministry of Hydrology [1997. China's Regional Water Bullets. Water Resource and Hydro-power Publishing House, Beijing, China] reports that about 65-80% of rivers in North China no longer support any economic activities. Previous studies have emphasized the amount of water withdrawn but rarely take water quality into consideration. The quality of the return flows usually changes; the water quality being lower than the water flows that entered the production process initially. It is especially important to measure the impacts of wastewater to the hydro-ecosystem. Thus, water consumption should not only account for the amount of water inputs but also the amount of water contaminated in the hydro-ecosystem by the discharged wastewater. In this paper we present a new accounting and analytical approach based on economic input-output modelling combined with a mass balanced hydrological model that links interactions in the economic system with interactions in the hydrological system. We thus follow the tradition of integrated economic-ecologic input-output modelling. Our hydro-economic accounting framework and analysis tool allows tracking water consumption on the input side, water pollution leaving the economic system and water flows passing through the hydrological system thus enabling us to deal with water resources of different qualities. Following this method, the results illustrate that North China requires 96% of its annual available water, including both water inputs for the economy and contaminated water that is ineligible for any uses.     

ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT OF LARGE RIVERS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE MISSOURI RIVER1

ABSTRACT: The technocratic approach for managing the Missouri River and other large rivers is not effective in resolving conflicts among competing uses of water and dealing with uncertainty about how river ecosystems respond to alternative management actions. Adaptive management offers an alternative way to address these and other issues. It has the potential to alleviate management gridlock and provide lasting solutions to management of the Missouri River and other large river ecosystems. In passive adaptive management, simulation models and expert judgment are combined to select a preferred management action. While passive adaptive management is relatively simple and inexpensive to use, it does not necessarily provide reliable information for making management decisions. Active adaptive management uses statistically designed experiments to test assumptions or hypotheses about ecosystem responses to management actions. It is best carried out by a collaborative working group. Active adaptive management has several advantages, but the inability to satisfy certain prerequisites for successful application makes it more difficult to implement in large river ecosystems. A second‐best approach is proposed here to select, implement, monitor, and evaluate a preferred management action and retain that action provided ecological conditions improve and socioeconomic indicators do not fall below established acceptability limits.     

Environmental impact of mining in Ghana: issues and answers

As part of the process of drafting environmental guidelines for mining, a study of the impact of mining on the environment was undertaken by the Ghanaian Minerals Commission. The study evaluated the impact of underground mines and surface mines on the physical environment as well as their socio-economic impact. Among its conclusions: for both types of mines, drainage emptying out into rivers is a major cause of pollution; mine roads open up uninhabited regions to farming and other uses. Underground mines employ more workers than surface mines; the socioeconomic benefits of the surface mines to local people are less than those of underground mines.     

市场化推进农村河流环境整治探究

农村河流环境污染的经济本质是由于环境“公共物品”属性导致其使用的外部环境不经济,本文把环境问题与经济研究接轨,设计了四种市场化利用模式,把河流厦相关公共物品“特定产权”明晰化,环保责任由政府承包转移到企业或个人,使责任明确化,从而有效对农村河流环境进行长效管理。最后以扬州市汉留镇河道清淤、保洁的市场化做实证分析。     

Transboundary resource management in the EU: transnational welfare maximization and transboundary water sharing on the Iberian peninsula?

The purpose of this paper is to elucidate the treatment of the value of transnational welfare maximization as based on welfare economics in transboundary river sharing in the EU. The paper draws on theorizing on spillovers and on game theory and it contrasts these with other ways of explaining transnational agreements. The second part of the paper discusses the implications of an approach trying to maximize transnational welfare in a situation of shared resources by means of mutual payments between sharing states and it looks at their treatment throughout the negotiations and at the outcome of the Luso‐Spanish Convention. The conclusions from the case reject a welfare economic evaluation of the negotiations on transnational agreements. In reality, mutual payments as described here might only be applied in the long term and only to specific transboundary spillovers. The negotiations of the Luso‐Spanish Convention were tightly intertwined with developments in the Water Policy of the EU. Some elements of the currently implemented Water Framework Directive favour a future use of mutual payments to achieve an increase in efficiency in the use of shared rivers.     

CONTINUOUS SIMULATION FOR WATER QUALITY PLANNING1

ABSTRACT: This paper describes a methodology for the evaluation of water quality plans analogous to procedures used in flood control planning, where flood damage frequency curves provide the basis for determining flood control benefits. The proposed method uses continuous water quality simulation to develop long term information from which water quality frequency curves can be obtained. This frequency information allows the evaluation of the impact of proposed water quality control plans taking into consideration the variable nature of the water resource. Using treatment costs and other economic indicators of water quality, the frequency information can be used to estimate the cost-effectiveness and economic efficiency of alternative plans. The method is demonstrated in a semi-hypothetical environment; real hydrologic and climatic characteristics are assigned to a hypothetical watershed configuration. Alternative management plans are simulated and analyzed for both physical and economic impacts. The advantages of continuous simulation and its use in water quality planning are explored.     

THE CHUBB/BAUMAN METHOD FOR ESTIMATING THE RECREATION POTENTIAL OF RIVERS: A CRITICAL REVIEW1

ABSTRACT: The Chubb/Bauman (Ch/B) method for making quantitative estimates of recreation potential for rivers is based on the 1968/ 69 Leopold method for quantitative assessment of the scenic beauty of rivers. Both use classifications of environmental variables as the database. Unlike the Leopold method, the classifications used in the Ch/B method consistently reflect human preferences. The Ch/B method collects information on 67 variables, and uses a computer program to produce estimates of potential for 16 common recreation activities. This critique evaluates selected concepts and procedures of the Ch/B method partly by comparison with other available methods of recreation resource inventory. It considers the validity and utility of numerical weighting of variables, the use of numbers derived from place in a classification, and the transformation process. The quantitative techniques of the method exhibit serious flaws. Much of the data produced by the method appears to be quantitative but in fact is not, and it does not produce truly quantitative estimates of recreation potential. Classifications of generalized geographic or environmental variables are shown to have serious defects as a basis for evaluation of recreational potential.     

Impact of informal regulation of pollution on water quality in rivers in India

In this paper an attempt is made to assess the impact of informal regulation of water pollution on water quality in Indian rivers. For this purpose, an econometric analysis of determinants of water quality in Indian rivers is carried out using water quality (water class) data for 106 monitoring points on 10 important rivers for five years, 1995-1999. To explain variations in water quality, an Ordered Probit model is estimated, in which poll percentage in parliamentary elections, a proxy for the intensity of informal regulation, is taken as one of the main explanatory variables. Rainfall, industrialization, irrigation intensity and fertilizer use are some of the other explanatory variables used in the model to control for the influence of these factors. As expected, river water quality is found to be positively related with rainfall, and negatively related with industrialization, irrigation intensity and fertilizer use. A significant positive relationship is found between poll percentage and water quality, and also between the rate of increase in literacy level in a district and the water quality in rivers flowing through the district. These results point to a significant favorable effect of informal regulation of pollution on water quality in rivers in India.     

Environmental Impact Assessment of Sand Mining from the Small Catchment Rivers in the Southwestern Coast of India: A Case Study

In the past few decades, the demand for construction grade sand is increasing in many parts of the world due to rapid economic development and subsequent growth of building activities. This, in many of the occasions, has resulted in indiscriminate mining of sand from instream and floodplain areas leading to severe damages to the river basin environment. The case is rather alarming in the small catchment rivers like those draining the southwestern coast of India due to limited sand resources in their alluvial reaches. Moreover, lack of adequate information on the environmental impact of river sand mining is a major lacuna challenging regulatory efforts in many developing countries. Therefore, a scientific assessment is a pre-requisite in formulating management strategies in the sand mining-hit areas. In this context, a study has been made as a case to address the environmental impact of sand mining from the instream and floodplain areas of three important rivers in the southwestern coast of India namely the Chalakudy, Periyar and Muvattupuzha rivers, whose lowlands host one of the fast developing urban-cum-industrial centre, the Kochi city. The study reveals that an amount of 11.527 million ty⁻¹ of sand (8.764 million ty⁻¹ of instream sand and 2.763 million ty⁻¹ of floodplain sand) is being mined from the midland and lowland reaches of these rivers for construction of buildings and other infrastructural facilities in Kochi city and its satellite townships. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) carried out as a part of this investigation shows that the activities associated with mining and processing of sands have not only affected the health of the river ecosystems but also degraded its overbank areas to a large extent. Considering the degree of degradation caused by sand mining from these rivers, no mining scenario may be opted in the deeper zones of the river channels. Also, a set of suggestions are made for the overall improvement of the rivers and its biophysical environment.