Benefit–cost analysis of lane departure warning and roll stability control in commercial vehicles

Introduction: This paper presents the cost benefits of two different onboard safety systems (OSS) installed on trucks as they operated during normal revenue deliveries. Using a formal economic analysis approach, the study quantified the costs and benefits associated with lane departure warning (LDW) systems and roll stability control (RSC) systems. Methods: The study used data collected from participating carriers (many of these crashes were not reported to state or Federal agencies), and the research team also reviewed each crash file to determine if the specific OSS would have mitigated or prevented the crash. The deployment of each OSS was anticipated to increase the safety of all road users, but impact different sectors of society in different ways. Benefits that were inherent in each group (e.g., industry, society) were considered, and different benefit–cost analyses (BCAs) were performed. Results: This paper presents two BCAs: a BCA focused on the costs and benefits in the carrier industry by implementing each OSS, and a BCA that measured the societal benefits of each OSS. In addition, a BCA for a theoretical mandatory deployment option for each OSS is presented. Conclusions: BCA results for LDW and RSC clearly showed their benefits outweighed their costs for the carrier and society. Practical applications: Cost information is a crucial factor in purchasing decisions in carriers; similarly, regulators must consider the cost burden prior to mandating technologies. The results in this study provide carrier decision makers and regulators with information necessary to make an informed decision regarding RSC and LDW.     

The effect of motorcyclists’ age on injury severities in single-motorcycle crashes with unobserved heterogeneity

Introduction: Due to the myriad of unique characteristics associated with motorcycle operation, motorcycle safety is a public health concern as complex as it is serious. National crash data suggest motorcyclists are 28 times more likely to be killed when compared to passenger car occupants. In the state of Florida, motorcycle crashes are 1.5 times more likely to result in the death of the rider, placing Florida among the top deadliest states for motorcyclists in the nation. Using police-reported data from 2016, this study addresses the complex and interconnected nature of the many characteristics associated with motorcycle operation by investigating the effect of age on motorcyclists’ riding behavior as it relates to injury severity for single-motorcycle crashes in the state of Florida. Method: To account for unobserved heterogeneity in the crash data, mixed logit models with heterogeneity in means and variances were estimated to model three injury severity outcomes (non-visible, severe, and fatal) for three age groups (under 30, 30–49, and 50 and above). Results: Model results indicate that age affects motorcyclists’ safety perception and ability to assess risks, thereby influencing their involvement in risky behaviors. Characteristics unique to motorcycle operation—spatial characteristics, speed, motorcycle type, time of day, helmet usage, alcohol consumption, ejection from motorcycle, passenger presence, endorsement status, and lighting—are further complicated by their dependency on the characteristics of the individual motorcyclist. Age of motorcyclist indicates a relationship between motorcyclists’ behavior and perceived safety. Conclusion: The model results indicated that statistically significant parameters constituted different models and they were not equal across the age groups of motorcyclists: aged under 30, aged 30–49, and aged 50 and above. Through advanced econometric modeling, this study fills a gap in the existing literature and assists the safety professionals, motorcycle trainers, policymakers, law enforcement agencies, and roadway designers in developing countermeasures.     

The injury epidemiology of adult riders in vehicle-two-wheeler crashes in China,Ningbo, 2011–2015

Introduction: We used road crashes between vehicles and two-wheelers from Yinzhou District Ningbo in 2011–2015 from the China In-depth Accident Study (CIDAS) as sample cases. The risk factors of different injury severity grades were analyzed. Method: The classification tree model was used to screen the possible interaction items, and the corresponding regression model was constructed according to the results of the tree model to explore the influencing factors of cyclist injury. Results: The road types, weather types, gender, age of the riders, and vehicle speed were significantly correlated with the dependent variables. The interaction effect of gender*road type, weather*age, weather*speed and speed*age were obtained through a tree model. Conclusions: The risk of male casualties at the crossroads was 3.31 times higher than that of female casualties at the straight roads. On sunny days, the risk of crash casualties in Ningbo was low, and the fatality risk when the speed reached 38 km/h was 10%. Under the interaction effect of weather and age, the fatality risk in cloudy/foggy and rainy days was almost coincident, and the serious risk in cloudy/foggy conditions was the highest. Practical applications: Through factor analysis, it is confirmed that there is interaction effect among the factors, and it can provide reference for relevant departments to formulate more targeted and effective governance strategies.     

The role of component arrangement in complex safety instrumented systems—A case study

The arrangement of components plays a key role in the performance of complex Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS), in which a SIS logic solver is interlocked with other logic solvers, to share a final element, for instance. The position of the components and the way they are utilized affects the reliability characteristics, such as the Probability of Failure on Demand (PFD), Spurious Trip Rate (STR), architectural sensitivity and model uncertainty. This case study uses quantitative and qualitative approaches to elaborate on various aspects of component arrangement in complex SIS. Numerous simplified models are analyzed; new classification is introduced for SIS components based on their response to demand; a set of guidelines are developed for SIS architecture design, with a focus on component arrangement; and the use of these guidelines is demonstrated in a real-life example, where an existing turbine SIS is modified to incorporate a new over-speed protection system. The simplified models and the turbine upgrade project are also used to explain the issue of unknowns and uncertainties in reliability analysis and how these issues can be addressed in SIS architecture by optimizing component arrangement.     

Prevention of railway trespassing by automatic sound warning—A pilot study

Objective: The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of a sound warning system on the frequency of trespassing at 2 pilot test sites in Finland.

Methods: The effect of automatic prerecorded sound warning on the prevention of railway trespassing was evaluated based on observations at 2 test sites in Finland. At both sites an illegal footpath crossed the railway, and the average daily number of trespassers before implementation of the measures was about 18 at both sites.

Results: The results showed that trespassing was reduced at these sites by 18 and 44%, respectively. Because of the lack of proper control sites, it is possible that the real effects of the measure are somewhat smaller.

Conclusions: The current study concludes that automatic sound warning may be efficient and cost effective at locations where fencing is not a viable option. However, it is not likely to be a cost-effective panacea for all kinds of sites where trespassing occurs, especially in countries like Finland where trespassing is scattered along the railway network rather than concentrated to a limited number of sites.     

Can new passenger cars reduce pedestrian lower extremity injury? A review of geometrical changes of front-end design before and after regulatory efforts

Objective: Pedestrian lower extremity represents the most frequently injured body region in car-to-pedestrian accidents. The European Directive concerning pedestrian safety was established in 2003 for evaluating pedestrian protection performance of car models. However, design changes have not been quantified since then. The goal of this study was to investigate front-end profiles of representative passenger car models and the potential influence on pedestrian lower extremity injury risk.

Methods: The front-end styling of sedans and sport utility vehicles (SUV) released from 2008 to 2011 was characterized by the geometrical parameters related to pedestrian safety and compared to representative car models before 2003. The influence of geometrical design change on the resultant risk of injury to pedestrian lower extremity—that is, knee ligament rupture and long bone fracture—was estimated by a previously developed assessment tool assuming identical structural stiffness. Based on response surface generated from simulation results of a human body model (HBM), the tool provided kinematic and kinetic responses of pedestrian lower extremity resulted from a given car's front-end design.

Results: Newer passenger cars exhibited a “flatter” front-end design. The median value of the sedan models provided 87.5 mm less bottom depth, and the SUV models exhibited 94.7 mm less bottom depth. In the lateral impact configuration similar to that in the regulatory test methods, these geometrical changes tend to reduce the injury risk of human knee ligament rupture by 36.6 and 39.6% based on computational approximation. The geometrical changes did not significantly influence the long bone fracture risk.

Conclusions: The present study reviewed the geometrical changes in car front-ends along with regulatory concerns regarding pedestrian safety. A preliminary quantitative benefit of the lower extremity injury reduction was estimated based on these geometrical features. Further investigation is recommended on the structural changes and inclusion of more accident scenarios.     

The role of drug and alcohol use and the risk of motor vehicle crashes in Shiraz,Iran, 2014: A case–crossover study

Background: Traffic accidents and traffic-related injuries and mortality have become a major public health concern in Iran. This study aimed to examine the role of drug and alcohol use in motor vehicle accidents in Iran.

Methods: This case–crossover study was conducted on 441 drivers who survived a road traffic crash and were taken to the emergency department of Shahid Rajaee trauma hospital in Shiraz, southern Iran. Data were collected using checklists that included demographic characteristics and drug and alcohol use prior to driving. Alcohol and drug use was identified through self-report, and cannabis, morphine, and methamphetamine urine tests were used to confirm drug abuse among drivers.

Results: In total 17.9% of drivers reported using drugs (cannabis, opium, or metamphetamine) and 8.84% of drivers reported consuming alcohol prior to the collision. The crude odds ratios (ORs) for having a crash for opium, cannabis, and metamphetamine were 1.94 (95% interval confidence [CI], 1.11–3.38), 2.37 (95% CI, 1.03–5.42), 5.5 (95% CI, 1.21–24.81), respectively, and for all drugs was 3.83 (95% CI, 2.28–6.43). The OR for alcohol was 3.5 (95% CI, 1.73–7.06) based on self-report.

Conclusion: Drug and alcohol use are increasing the risk of traffic crashes in Iran. Risk-reducing programs must be designed and implemented.     

The effectiveness of U.S. OSHA process safety management inspection – A preliminary quantitative evaluation

This study attempted to evaluate the inspection effectiveness of the U.S. OSHA process safety management (PSM) standard using statistical correlation test. A total of 6578 citations of past 1277 OSHA PSM inspections from 1992 to 2006 were quantitatively compared with the findings of the U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board (CSB) investigations on root and contributing causes of 19 major chemical accidents. Nonparametric Spearman's coefficient of rank correlation tests showed a moderately strong agreement between OSHA PSM inspection citations and CSB findings at p < .01 significant level, and the degree of agreement increased with time. These results suggested that past OSHA PSM inspections had cited the problems that were the accident root causes, and the effectiveness of PSM citations has been improved as more inspections were conducted since the standard promulgation. However, factors such as standard coverage, inspection frequency, inspection resources allocation, and inspection strategy, were critical for effective PSM standard enforcement and implementation. Future studies should include more aspects of PSM citations and CSB accident investigation data for better evaluation of inspection effectiveness. The results may be valuable to the PSM enforcement policy makers.     

Are automatic systems the future of motorcycle safety? A novel methodology to prioritize potential safety solutions based on their projected effectiveness

Objective: Motorcycle riders are involved in significantly more crashes per kilometer driven than passenger car drivers. Nonetheless, the development and implementation of motorcycle safety systems lags far behind that of passenger cars. This research addresses the identification of the most effective motorcycle safety solutions in the context of different countries.

Methods: A knowledge-based system of motorcycle safety (KBMS) was developed to assess the potential for various safety solutions to mitigate or avoid motorcycle crashes. First, a set of 26 common crash scenarios was identified from the analysis of multiple crash databases. Second, the relative effectiveness of 10 safety solutions was assessed for the 26 crash scenarios by a panel of experts. Third, relevant information about crashes was used to weigh the importance of each crash scenario in the region studied. The KBMS method was applied with an Italian database, with a total of more than 1 million motorcycle crashes in the period 2000–2012.

Results: When applied to the Italian context, the KBMS suggested that automatic systems designed to compensate for riders' or drivers' errors of commission or omission are the potentially most effective safety solution. The KBMS method showed an effective way to compare the potential of various safety solutions, through a scored list with the expected effectiveness of each safety solution for the region to which the crash data belong. A comparison of our results with a previous study that attempted a systematic prioritization of safety systems for motorcycles (PISa project) showed an encouraging agreement.

Conclusions: Current results revealed that automatic systems have the greatest potential to improve motorcycle safety. Accumulating and encoding expertise in crash analysis from a range of disciplines into a scalable and reusable analytical tool, as proposed with the use of KBMS, has the potential to guide research and development of effective safety systems. As the expert assessment of the crash scenarios is decoupled from the regional crash database, the expert assessment may be reutilized, thereby allowing rapid reanalysis when new crash data become available. In addition, the KBMS methodology has potential application to injury forecasting, driver/rider training strategies, and redesign of existing road infrastructure.     

Implementation of safety management systems in Hong Kong construction industry – A safety practitioner's perspective

IntroductionIn the 1980s, the safety management system (SMS) was introduced in the construction industry to mitigate against workplaces hazards, reduce the risk of injuries, and minimize property damage. Also, the Factories and Industrial Undertakings (Safety Management) Regulation was introduced on 24 November 1999 in Hong Kong to empower the mandatory implementation of a SMS in certain industries including building construction. Therefore, it is essential to evaluate the effectiveness of the SMS in improving construction safety and identify the factors that influence its implementation in Hong Kong.MethodA review of the current state-of-the-practice helped to establish the critical success factors (CSFs), benefits, and difficulties of implementing the SMS in the construction industry, while structured interviews were used to establish the key factors of the SMS implementation.ResultsResults of the state-of-the-practice review and structured interviews indicated that visible senior commitment, in terms of manpower and cost allocation, and competency of safety manager as key drivers for the SMS implementation. More so, reduced accident rates and accident costs, improved organization framework, and increased safety audit ratings were identified as core benefits of implementing the SMS. Meanwhile, factors such as insufficient resources, tight working schedule, and high labor turnover rate were the key challenges to the effective SMS implementation in Hong Kong.Practical applicationsThe findings of the study were consistent and indicative of the future development of safety management practice and the sustainable safety improvement of Hong Kong construction industry in the long run.     

The role of risk avoidance and locus of control in workers’ near miss experiences: Implications for improving safety management systems

The process industry has made major advancements and is a leader in near-miss safety management, with several validated models and databases to track close call reports. However, organizational efforts to develop safe work procedures and rules do not guarantee that employees will behaviorally comply with them. Assuming that at some point, every safety management system will need to be examined and realigned to help prevent incidents on the job, it is important to understand how personality traits can impact workers' risk-based decisions. Such work has been done in the mining industry due to its characteristically high risks and the results can be gleaned to help the process industry realign goals and values with their workforce. In the current study, researchers cross-sectionally surveyed 1,334 miners from 20 mine sites across the United States, varying in size and commodity. The survey sought to understand how mineworkers' risk avoidance could impact their near miss incidents on the job – a common precursor to lost-time incidents. Multiple regressions showed that as a miner's level of risk avoidance increased by 1 unit in the 6-point response scale, the probability of experiencing a near miss significantly decreased by 30% when adjusting for relevant control variables. Additionally, a significant interaction between risk avoidance and locus of control suggested that the effect of risk avoidance on near misses is enhanced as a miner's locus of control increases. A one-unit increase in locus of control appends the base effect of risk avoidance on near misses with an additional 8% decrease in the probability. Findings are discussed from a near-miss safety management system perspective in terms of methods to foster both risk avoidance and locus of control in an effort to reduce the probability of near misses and lost time at the organizational level within the process industry and other high-hazard industries.     

A survey of forest workers in New Zealand. Do hours of work, rest, and recovery play a role in accidents and injury?

PROBLEM: A number of structural and organizational changes have occurred recently within the New Zealand Forestry Industry, with concerns being raised about the impact of these changes on the forestry worker in terms of fatigue, sleepiness, and compromised safety. This study explored the relationship of fatigue, and some of its key determinants, with accidents and injuries in a group of forestry industry workers in New Zealand. METHOD: A total of 367 forestry workers responded to a self-administered questionnaire. RESULTS: Fatigue was found to be commonly experienced at work in the forest, with 78% of workers reporting that they experienced fatigue at least "sometimes." This study found that certain groups of workers reported long working hours, reduced sleep, compromised recovery time, and intensely paced work. The results of logistic regression analysis showed that recent sleep, number of breaks taken during the workday, and specific job/tasks were independently associated with reporting of high fatigue levels at work. Near-miss injury events were significantly more common among those reporting a high level of fatigue at work. Accidents and lost-time injury were associated with length of time at work, ethnicity, and having had near-miss injury events. DISCUSSION: Together, these results suggest that fatigue and aspects of work organization, which are likely to be fatiguing, may be associated with compromised safety for forest workers. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: With an already slim margin of error present in forest operations, an impairment due to increased fatigue may constitute a significant risk factor for accidents and injuries in this workforce. The results indicate the need for further examination of shift and workload management among forestry workers, as well as a role for improving industry awareness about the causes and consequences of fatigue.     

The role of standardization in safety management – A case study of a major oil & gas company

This article discusses the strengths and weaknesses of various kinds of standardization, when applied to the field of safety management. Recently, there are signs that organizations operating in high risk environments take further steps towards standardization. On the positive side, standardization has the potential to enhance the predictability of normal operations as well as facilitating the transfer of lessons learnt across organizational contexts. On the negative side, standardization is by definition a strategy for dealing with known hazards and accident scenarios. We discuss how too strong an emphasis on standardization can involve unintended negative consequences for organizations’ crisis-handling capabilities.     

The dyadic level of conceptualization and analysis: A missing link in multilevel OB research?

Despite burgeoning multilevel research in organizational behavior over the past two decades, our understanding of dyadic relationships at work remains underdeveloped. Focusing on leader–member exchange, we discuss conceptual and methodological challenges that have hampered research at this level and illustrate how and why such analysis might provide new insights. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Making work environment auditable – A ‘critical case’ study of certified occupational health and safety management systems in Denmark

This paper discusses the impact of certification on occupational health and safety management (OHSM) systems. Most research in the field has focused on how well such systems comply with voluntary standards such as OHSAS 18001 or with national and international legislation. However, this paper shows that even in cases of compliance, the certified systems have problems dealing with a range of contemporary complex work environment issues. Furthermore, certification also transforms the kinds of topics addressed and the procedures and activities applied in the system. Using the (in many ways successful) development of certified OHSM system in a manufacturing company in Denmark as a critical case, we demonstrate how certified OHSM systems unintentionally yet actively create an environment of ‘measurable and auditable facts’ shaped not only in response to legal and market demands for a safe work environment, but also as a consequence of the external demands for a visible and accountable work environment standard. We show how certified OHSM systems function like a hinge between internal operations and an external audience in a globalized market, thus giving priority to work environment issues that may later become demonstrable guarantees for a safe and healthy work environment. Thus the certified management system does not necessarily tackle the most urgent work environment issues and may exclude important aspects of the work environment such as psychosocial factors.     

Workers’ Involvement—A Missing Component in the Implementation of Occupational Safety and Health Management Systems in Enterprises

Effective implementation of occupational safety and health (OSH) legislation based on European Union directives requires promotion of OSH management systems ( OSH MS). To this end, voluntary Polish standards (PN-N-18000) have been adopted, setting forth OSH MS specifications and guidelines. However, the number of enterprises implementing OSH MS has increased slowly, falling short of expectations, which call for a new national policy on OSH MS promotion. To develop a national policy in this area, a survey was conducted in 40 enterprises with OSH MS in place. The survey was aimed at identifying motivational factors underlying OSH MS implementation decisions. Specifically, workers’ and their representatives’ involvement in OSH MS implementation was investigated. The results showed that the level of workers ‘ involvement was relatively low, which may result in a low effectiveness of those systems. The same result also applies to the involvement of workers’ representatives and that of trade unions.     

Health-related quality of life 24 months after sustaining a minor musculoskeletal injury in a road traffic crash: A prospective cohort study

Objectives: A better understanding of the long-term factors that independently predict poorer quality of life following mild to moderate musculoskeletal injuries is needed. We aimed to establish the predictors of quality of life (including sociodemographic, health, psychosocial, and pre-injury factors) 24 months after a noncatastrophic road traffic injury.

Methods: In a prospective cohort study of 252 participants with mild/moderate injury sustained in a road traffic crash, quality of life was measured 24 months following the baseline survey. A telephone-administered questionnaire obtained information on various potential explanatory variables. Health-related quality of life was measured using the European Quality of Life–5 Dimensions (EQ-5D) and Medical Outcomes Survey Short Form–12 (SF-12). Multivariable linear regression analyses determined the associations between explanatory variables and quality of life measures.

Results: Mean SF-12 physical component summary (PCS) and mental component summary (MCS) scores increased by 7.3 and 2.5 units, respectively, from baseline to 24-month follow-up. Each 10-year increase in baseline age was independently associated with 3.1-unit (P < .001) and 1.5-unit (P = .001) decrease in EQ Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) and SF-12 PCS scores at follow-up, respectively. Poor/fair compared to excellent pre-injury health was associated with a 0.16-, 21.3-, and 11.5-unit decrease in EQ-5D summary (P = .03), VAS scores (P = .001), and SF-12 PCS scores (P < .001), respectively. Baseline pain severity ratings and pain catastrophizing scores were inversely associated with 24-month EQ VAS scores (both P < .001). Each unit increase in baseline pain score (P = .001) and pain catastrophizing score (P = .02) was associated with a 1.0- and 4.6-unit decrease in SF-12 MCS scores at 24 months, respectively. Other observed predictors of quality of life measures (EQ-5D summary and/or VAS scores and/ or SF-12 MCS) included marital status, smoking, hospital admission, pre-injury health (anxiety/depression and chronic illness), and whiplash injury.

Conclusion: Sociodemographic indicators, pre-injury health, and biopsychosocial correlates were independently associated with health-related quality of life 24 months following a noncatastrophic road traffic crash injury.     

A pleasure working together? The effects of dissimilarity in team member conscientiousness on team temporal processes and individual satisfaction

In this study of 43 student project teams, we tested a multi‐level mediation model of the relationship between dissimilarity in conscientiousness, team temporal processes, and team member satisfaction. We distinguished between individual‐level dissimilarity in conscientiousness (i.e., the distance between an individual member and his or her team mates), and team‐level dissimilarity in conscientiousness (i.e., the overall dissimilarity within the team). Individual‐level dissimilarity in conscientiousness had a direct negative effect on team members' satisfaction with the team, but did not affect their satisfaction with the team's performance. Team‐level dissimilarity in conscientiousness indirectly affected both types of satisfaction negatively as it impeded early agreement about the temporal aspects of task execution, which, in turn, hindered coordinated action in later stages of team task execution. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.