A methodology for estimation of vehicle emissions in an urban environment: an example from Greater Manchester

Road transport is a major contributor to urban air pollution. The introduction of local air qua lity management in the UK will require objective test procedures to evaluate and prioritise the air pollution benefits of existing transport systems and proposed developments. This methodology has been developed to assist the land use and transport planning professionals in evaluating current and potential future impacts on air quality. The method couples an emissions estimation procedure to a traffic flow database. It requires data on emission factors, the composition of the vehicle fleet, vehicle control technologies and the daily traffic flow profile. With these data, it is possible to generate emission estimates per kilometre, link or road as selected by the user. Forecasts can be made by varying input variables. The current methodology allows prediction of five or more pollutant species/classes, limited only by availability of emission factors. The method utilises a commercially available personal computer based spreadsheet. Further coupling of the method to a geographical information system will improve the decision support capability of the method.     

Optimisation of rainwater tank design from large roofs: A case study in Melbourne, Australia

Rainwater tanks for larger roof areas need optimisation of tank size, which is often not carried out before installation of these tanks. This paper presents a case study of rainwater tank evaluation and design for large roof areas, located in Melbourne, Australia, based on observed daily rainfall data representing three different climatic regimes (i.e. dry average, and wet years). With the aim of developing a comprehensive Decision Support Tool for the performance analysis and design of rainwater tanks, a simple spreadsheet based daily water balance model is developed using daily rainfall data, contributing roof area, rainfall loss factor, available storage volume, tank overflow and irrigation water demand. In this case study, two (185 m³ and 110 m³) underground rainwater tanks are considered. Using the developed model, effectiveness of each tank under different climatic scenarios are assessed. The analysis shows that both the tanks are quite effective in wet and average years, however less effective in dry years. A payback period analysis of the tanks is preformed which reveals that the total construction cost of the tanks can be recovered within 15-21 years time depending on tank size, climatic conditions and future water price increase rates. For the tanks, a relationship between water price increase rates and payback periods is developed. The study highlights the need for detailed optimisation and financial analysis for large rainwater tanks to maximise the benefits.     

The impacts of road transport on air quality in the Greater Manchester region, UK: policies towards a sustainable transport system

The transport-induced air quality problems of the Greater Manchester region are examined. The problems are defined in terms of economic and social factors leading to the development of a car-based economy. The impacts of transport emissions on the natural and built environment and human health are discussed. The administrative, legislative and pollution control responses to the problem are examined. The nature of future air quality problems will require an integration of traffic management, land use, public transport and pollution control policies if they are to be satisfactorily addressed. A series of policy recommendations towards this end are included.     

Harvesting of rainwater and brooklets water to increase mountain agricultural productivity: A case study from a dry valley of southwestern China

In semi-arid valleys of southwestern China, seasonal shortage of water is the major contributing factor to low and unstable crop yield. Harvesting of both rainwater and brooklets water in the semi-arid valleys of Ningnan county of Sichuan Province has brought about considerable economic and environmental change. Brooklet water is collected throughout the year but mainly during the rainy season in a series of ponds while rainwater is harvested in underground tanks constructed on road side or land boundaries with only a small opening above ground to save limited cropland. Increased water availability has promoted cultivation of sugarcane, tobacco, and mulberry, and increased per unit area yield of food crops. Sericulture, sugarcane and tobacco have become three important sources of farmers' income. The water harvesting has contributed considerably to increased rural income, poverty reduction, reduced soil erosion and improvement in overall environment. Government has played a key role in planning and implementation of water harvesting programmes. Financial support of government and clear ownership of water harvesting facilities are critical for the success of the programme. Application of similar water harvesting techniques in other areas with similar biophysical conditions would contribute to enhancing the rural economy and alleviating poverty.     

Radioactivity in rainwater following the chernobyl accident

Summary Rainfall is a widely-acknowledged vehicle for the removal and deposition at ground level of atmospheric-borne materials. The events following the Chernobyl accident demonstrated once again the importance of atmospheric conditions in dispersing, transporting and depositing pollutants. Much attention has been paid to the contamination of vegetation and food products, yet the quality of the contaminated rainwater has been overlooked. This paper reports and summarises the findings from Great Britain and Scandinavia and shows that the issue is far from simple or easily understood.Dennis Wheeler is a member of the academic staff in The Geography Department at Sunderland Polytechnic. Throughout this paper the identity of actual recording sites in the UK has not been specified, merely the regions from which the data were gathered. This is in accordance with the wishes of the National Radiological Protection Board, UK.     

Cost-efficiency of rainwater harvesting strategies in dense Mediterranean neighbourhoods

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) presents many benefits for urban sustainability and it is emerging as a key strategy in order to cope with water scarcity in cities. However, there is still a lack of knowledge regarding the most adequate scale in financial terms for RWH infrastructures particularly in dense areas. The aim of this research is to answer this question by analysing the cost-efficiency of several RWH strategies in urban environments. The research is based on a case study consisting of a neighbourhood of dense social housing (600 inhabitants/ha) with multi-storey buildings. The neighbourhood is located in the city of Granollers (Spain), which has a Mediterranean climate (average rainfall 650 mm/year). Four strategies are defined according to the spatial scale of implementation and the moment of RWH infrastructure construction (building/neighbourhood scale and retrofit action vs. new construction). Two scenarios of water prices have been considered (current water prices and future increased water prices under the EU Water Framework Directive). In order to evaluate the cost-efficiency of these strategies, the necessary rainwater conveyance, storage and distribution systems have been designed and assessed in economic terms through the Net Present Value within a Life Cycle Costing approach. The pipe water price that makes RWH cost-efficient for each strategy has been obtained, ranging from 1.86 to 6.42€/m³. The results indicate that RWH strategies in dense urban areas under Mediterranean conditions appear to be economically advantageous only if carried out at the appropriate scale in order to enable economies of scale, and considering the expected evolution of water prices. However, not all strategies are considered cost-efficient. Thus, it is necessary to choose the appropriate scale for rainwater infrastructures in order to make them economically feasible.     

Microbiological quality of roof-harvested rainwater and health risks: a review

Roof-harvested rainwater (RHRW) has been considered an effective alternative water source for drinking and various nonpotable uses in a number of countries throughout the world. The most significant issue in relation to using untreated RHRW for drinking or other potable uses, however, is the potential public health risks associated with microbial pathogens. This paper reviews the available research reporting on the microbial quality of RHRW and provides insight on the capacity of fecal indicator bacteria to monitor health risks and disease outbreaks associated with the consumption of untreated RHRW. Several zoonotic bacterial and protozoan pathogens were detected in individual and communal rainwater systems. The majority of the studies reported in the literature assessed the quality of rainwater on the basis of the presence or absence of specific pathogens, with little information available regarding the actual numbers of such pathogens. In addition, no information is available concerning the ongoing prevalence of different pathogens in RHRW over time. The published data suggest that the microbial quality of RHRW should be considered less than that expected for potable water and that the commonly used indicators may not be suitable to indicate the presence of pathogens in RHRW. Several case control studies established potential links between gastroenteritis and consumption of untreated RHRW. Therefore, health risks assessment models, such as those using Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment, should be used to manage and mitigate health risks associated with drinking and nonpotable uses of RHRW.     

Oxides of nitrogen in the greater Manchester conurbation,UK

Summary This paper reviews the emission sources of oxides of nitrogen and provides an estimate of the contribution from the Greater Manchester conurbation. The uncertainty attached to the estimate is large. Atmospheric and rainwater concentrations of oxides of nitrogen are reported from the Greater Manchester Acid Deposition Survey network. The health and ecological implications of these concentrations are commented upon and the measured values compared to a number of environmental guidelines, including recently formulated critical load and critical level estimates. Control technologies applicable to both mobile and large combustion sources are briefly reviewed.Dr James Longhurst is Director of the Acid Rain Information Centre which is based at Manchester Polytechnic.     

Soil acidity and manganese in declining and nondeclining sugar maple stands in Pennsylvania

For decades, the hardwood forests of northern Pennsylvania have been subjected to chronic atmospheric loading of acidifying agents. On marginal, high-elevation, unglaciated sites, sugar maples (Acer saccharum Marsh.) have experienced severe decline symptoms and mortality. Accelerated soil acidification, base cation leaching, and increased availability of toxic metals have been suggested as predisposing factors contributing to this decline. Manganese, an essential micronutrient, is also a potentially phytotoxic metal that may be a factor associated with poor sugar maple health on soils vulnerable to acidification from anthropogenic sources. We measured Mn levels in four compartments of the soil-tree system (soil, foliage, xylem wood, and sap) on three sugar maple stands in northern Pennsylvania. Two stands were classified as declining and one was in good health. Negative correlations were found between soil pH and Mn levels in the soil, foliage, sap, and xylem wood. Levels of Mn in these pools were consistently higher on declining sites, which correspondingly exhibited lower levels of Ca and Mg. Species differences between red maple (Acer rubrum L.) and sugar maple at the two declining sites suggested different tolerances to excessive Mn. Molar ratios of Mg/Mn and Ca/Mn were different among sites and showed potential as indicators of soil acidification. Significant correlations among soil, sap, foliage, and xylem wood Mn were also noted. These results show clear Mn differences among sites and, when viewed with recent Mn toxicity experiments and other observational studies, suggest that excessive Mn may play a role in the observed decline and mortality of sugar maple.     

Economic and financial analysis on rainwater harvesting for agricultural irrigation in the rural areas of Beijing

Since 2006, around 600 rainwater harvesting systems have been constructed for agricultural irrigation in Beijing. The financial and economic implications of using these systems are discussed less. It is important to understand the effectiveness of the investments spent on the rainwater harvesting systems. The paper aims to analyze economic and financial performance of the constructed rainwater harvesting systems in rural areas of Beijing through the method of cost benefit analysis. The economic analysis focuses on determining the contribution of rainwater harvesting systems to the development of society, carried out from the point of view of government. The financial analysis allows comparison of the financial implications of using groundwater with using rainwater for agricultural irrigation from the point of view of individual participant, namely the local farmers. The results show that the rainwater harvesting systems are economically feasible. This means rainwater harvesting have positive effects for society. However, the financial feasibility of rainwater harvesting systems depends on the charge for groundwater and on the size of the rainwater harvesting systems. If groundwater is not charged, the rainwater harvesting systems are not financially feasible. If groundwater is charged at 2 Yuan/m³, only large size systems are financially feasible while small and middle sizes systems are not financially feasible. Under these circumstances, only large systems can run smoothly, while farmers may not use the small and medium-size systems.     

Quality of rainwater harvesting for rural communities of Delta State,Nigeria

This paper assess the level of potability of rainwater samples harvested from catchments roofs in 6 rural communities of Delta State, Nigeria to achieve this goal a stratified sampling technique was adopted in the establishment of 90 sterilized cans into the 3 senatorial districts of Delta; on the basis of one can for thatch, aluminium, asbestos and corrugated iron sheets, and open surfaces. Six rural communities each were chosen from the three senatorial districts, making a total of 18 rural communities that were chosen for the study. The harvested rainwater samples were analysed with the most appropriate equipment and analytical techniques as recommended by World Health Organisation (WHO) and federal ministry of environment in Nigeria. Kruskal—wallis H’test statistical techniques was employed to ascertain whether differences exist amongst the rainwater samples collected from thatch, aluminium, asbestos and corrugated iron roofing sheets, and open surfaces. The result revealed that most of physiochemical and biological characteristics of rainwater samples were generally below the WHO threshold, as such the rainwater characteristics showed satisfactory concentration in these rural communities. Thus, the rainwater from these rural communities should be harvested, stored for human consumption and for other uses by the inhabitants. But treatment is needed in terms of their pH, TSS, Fe and colour. Similarly, significant differences exist amongst the rainwater samples collected from the 5 roofing types, most especially low quality of rainwater were observed in thatch and asbestos roofing sheets. Thus, rainwater from these sources should be purified before consumption.     

Design and operational parameters of a rooftop rainwater harvesting system: definition, sensitivity and verification

The appropriate design and evaluation of a rainwater harvesting (RWH) system is necessary to improve system performance and the stability of the water supply. The main design parameters (DPs) of an RWH system are rainfall, catchment area, collection efficiency, tank volume and water demand. Its operational parameters (OPs) include rainwater use efficiency (RUE), water saving efficiency (WSE) and cycle number (CN). The sensitivity analysis of a rooftop RWH system's DPs to its OPs reveals that the ratio of tank volume to catchment area (V/A) for an RWH system in Seoul, South Korea is recommended between 0.03 and 0.08 in terms of rate of change in RUE. The appropriate design value of V/A is varied with D/A. The extra tank volume up to V/A of 0.15～0.2 is also available, if necessary to secure more water. Accordingly, we should figure out suitable value or range of DPs based on the sensitivity analysis to optimize design of an RWH system or improve operation efficiency. The operational data employed in this study, which was carried out to validate the design and evaluation method of an RWH system, were obtained from the system in use at a dormitory complex at Seoul National University (SNU) in Korea. The results of these operational data are in good agreement with those used in the initial simulation. The proposed method and the results of this research will be useful in evaluating and comparing the performance of RWH systems. It is found that RUE can be increased by expanding the variety of rainwater uses, particularly in the high rainfall season.     

Economic and environmental analysis of standard, high efficiency, rainwater flushed, and composting toilets

The current sanitation technology in developed countries is based on diluting human excreta with large volumes of centrally provided potable water. This approach is a poor use of water resources and is also inefficient, expensive, and energy intensive. The goal of this study was to compare the standard sanitation technology (Scenario 1) with alternative technologies that require less or no potable water use in toilets. The alternative technologies considered were high efficiency toilets flushed with potable water (Scenario 2), standard toilets flushed with rainwater (Scenario 3), high efficiency toilets flushed with rainwater (Scenario 4), and composting toilets (Scenario 5). Cost, energy, and carbon implications of these five design scenarios were studied using two existing University of Toledo buildings. The results showed that alternative systems modeled in Scenarios 2, 4, and 5 were viable options both from an investment and an environmental performance perspective. High efficiency fixtures that use potable water (Scenario 2) is often the most preferred method in high efficiency buildings due to reduced water use and associated reductions in annual water and wastewater costs. However, the cost, energy, and CO(2)EE analyses all showed that Scenarios 4 and 5 were preferable over Scenario 2. Cost payback periods of scenarios 2, 4 and 5 were less than 10 years; in the future, increase in water and wastewater services would further decrease the payback periods. The centralized water and wastewater services have high carbon footprints; therefore if carbon footprint reduction is a primary goal of a building complex, alternative technologies that require less potable water and generate less wastewater can largely reduce the carbon footprint. High efficiency fixtures flushed with rainwater (Scenario 4) and composting toilets (Scenario 5) required considerably less energy than direct energy demands of buildings. However, the annual carbon footprint of these technologies was comparable to the annual carbon footprint from space heating. Similarly, the carbon savings that could be achieved from Scenario 4 or 5 were comparable to a recycling program that can be implemented in buildings.     

Integrating Science into Management of Ecosystems in the Greater Blue Mountains

Effective management of large protected conservation areas is challenged by political, institutional and environmental complexity and inconsistency. Knowledge generation and its uptake into management are crucial to address these challenges. We reflect on practice at the interface between science and management of the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area (GBMWHA), which covers approximately 1 million hectares west of Sydney, Australia. Multiple government agencies and other stakeholders are involved in its management, and decision-making is confounded by numerous plans of management and competing values and goals, reflecting the different objectives and responsibilities of stakeholders. To highlight the complexities of the decision-making process for this large area, we draw on the outcomes of a recent collaborative research project and focus on fire regimes and wild-dog control as examples of how existing knowledge is integrated into management. The collaborative research project achieved the objectives of collating and synthesizing biological data for the region; however, transfer of the project’s outcomes to management has proved problematic. Reasons attributed to this include lack of clearly defined management objectives to guide research directions and uptake, and scientific information not being made more understandable and accessible. A key role of a local bridging organisation (e.g., the Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute) in linking science and management is ensuring that research results with management significance can be effectively transmitted to agencies and that outcomes are explained for nonspecialists as well as more widely distributed. We conclude that improved links between science, policy, and management within an adaptive learning-by-doing framework for the GBMWHA would assist the usefulness and uptake of future research.     

Extractability of elements in sugar maple xylem along a gradient of soil acidity

Dendrochemistry has been used for the historical dating of pollution. Its reliability is questionable due primarily to the radial mobility of elements in sapwood. In the present study, the extractability of seven elements was characterized to assess their suitability for the monitoring of environmental conditions. Nine mature sugar maple trees (Acer saccharum Marsh.), a wide-ranging species in eastern North America that has suffered decline in past decades, were sampled in three Quebec watersheds along a soil acidity gradient. Five-year groups of annual tree rings were treated by sequential chemical extractions using extractants of varying strength (deionized H2O, 0.05 M HCl, and concentrated HNO(3)) to selectively solubilize the elements into three fractions (water-soluble, acid-soluble, and residual). Monovalent K; divalent Ba, Ca, Cd, Mg, Mn; and trivalent Al cations were found mostly in the water-soluble, acid-soluble, and residual fractions, respectively. Forms more likely to be mobile within the tree (water-soluble and acid-soluble) do not seem to be suitable for temporal monitoring because of potential lateral redistribution in sapwood rings. However, certain elements (Cd, Mn) were responsive to current soil acidity and could be used in spatial variation monitoring. Extractability of Al varied according to soil acidity; at less acidic sites, up to 90% of Al was contained in the residual form, whereas on very acidic soils, as much as 45% was found in the water-soluble and acid-soluble fractions. Sequential extractions can be useful for determining specific forms of metals as key indicators of soil acidification.     

Brownfield Redevelopment versus Greenfield Development: A Private Sector Perspective on the Costs and Risks Associated with Brownfield Redevelopment in the Greater Toronto Area

This paper examines the nature of the economic costs and risks involved in brownfield versus greenfield redevelopment in the Greater Toronto Area (Ontario, Canada) from a private sector perspective, and assesses the potential effectiveness of different policies and programmes designed to attenuate associated costs and risks. Through interviews, case-studies and an analysis of hypothetical development scenarios, it has been found that the perception that brownfield redevelopment is less cost-effective and entails greater risks than greenfield development, on the part of the private sector, is true for industrial projects in the province, but not for residential ones, which were found to be feasible, given the assumptions of the present study. Furthermore, the study has found that the attractiveness of residential brownfield projects can increase considerably with minor policy changes, but that promoting industrial redevelopment will require a more vigorous approach that employs a variety of environmental policy and economic development measures.     

我国大兴安岭北部鱼类资源现状

根据１９９０－１９９４年调查结果表明,我国大兴岭北部现有淡水鱼类计７目５亚目１４科,１４亚科４７属６８种,其中经济鱼类２２种。与８０年代初期相比,有８目２亚目１０科２亚科２９属３３种鱼类未采集到标本,经济鱼类资源少了１７种。     

Satellite Monitoring of Urban Sprawl and Assessment of its Potential Environmental Impact in the Greater Toronto Area Between 1985 and 2005

This research investigates urban sprawl in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) between 1985 and 2005 and the nature of the resulting landscape fragmentation, particularly with regard to the Oak Ridges Moraine (ORM), an ecologically important area for the region. Six scenes of Landsat TM imagery were acquired in summer of 1985, 1995, and 2005. These images and their texture measures were classified into eight land cover classes with very satisfactory final overall accuracies (93–95?%). Analysis of the classifications indicated that urban areas grew by 20?% between 1985 and 1995 and by 15?% between 1995 and 2005. Landscape fragmentation due to spatio-temporal land cover changes was evaluated using urban compactness indicators and landscape metrics, and results from the latter were used to draw conclusions about probable environmental impact. The indicator results showed that urban proportions increased in nearly all areas outside of the metropolitan center, including on portions of the ORM. The landscape metrics reveal that low density urban areas increased significantly in the GTA between 1985 and 2005, mainly at the expense of agricultural land. The metric results indicate increased vulnerability and exposure to adverse effects for natural and semi-natural land cover through greater contrast and lowered connectivity. The degree of urban perimeter increased around most environmentally significant areas in the region. Changes like these negatively impact species and the regional water supply in the GTA. Further investigation into specific environmental impacts of urban expansion in the region and which areas on the ORM are most at risk is recommended.     

Forb,Insect, and Soil Response to Burning and Mowing Wyoming Big Sagebrush in Greater Sage-Grouse Breeding Habitat

Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata wyomingensis A. t. Nutt. ssp. wyomingensis Beetle and Young) communities provide structure and forbs and insects needed by greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) for growth and survival. We evaluated forb, insect, and soil responses at six mowed and 19 prescribed burned sites compared to 25, paired and untreated reference sites. Sites were classified by treatment type, soil type, season, and decade of treatment (sites burned during 1990–1999 and sites burned or mowed during 2000–2006). Our objective was to evaluate differences in ten habitat attributes known to influence sage-grouse nesting and brood rearing to compare responses among treatment scenarios. Contrary to desired outcomes, treating Wyoming big sagebrush through prescribed burning or mowing may not stimulate cover or increase nutrition in food forbs, or increase insect abundance or indicators of soil quality compared with reference sites. In some cases, prescribed burning showed positive results compared with mowing such as greater forb crude protein content (%), ant (Hymenoptera; no./trap), beetle (Coleoptera/no./trap), and grasshopper abundance (Orthoptera; no./sweep), and total (%) soil carbon and nitrogen, but of these attributes, only grasshopper abundance was enhanced at burned sites compared with reference sites in 2008. Mowing did not promote a statistically significant increase in sage-grouse nesting or early brood-rearing habitat attributes such as cover or nutritional quality of food forbs, or counts of ants, beetles, or grasshoppers compared with reference sites.