不同草篱种植模式对土壤侵蚀的控制效应

选取我国南方红壤丘陵区5种等高草篱种植模式,结合径流小区法和稀土元素示踪技术,开展不同草篱控制坡地水土流失、减少地表径流的效应研究,分析等高草篱对坡面侵蚀空间分布的影响.结果发现,径流小区土壤流失量显著受降雨量影响,不同草篱种植模式下,各径流小区的平均土壤流失量和地表径流量较对照组(裸坡)均显著降低(P＜0.05),其中麦冬双行草篱处理平均土壤流失量和地表径流量最小,分别为4 047 g和1 554 L,对照组(裸坡)最大,分别为19 793 g和2 403 L;麦冬双行草篱在控制坡面土壤流失和径流方面效果最佳;通过平均土壤流失量和平均径流量的二次线性拟合模型发现,随着地表径流量的变化,不同处理下土壤流失量的边际值存在差异;坡面中、下部是侵蚀泥沙的主要溯源地,产生了接近总流失量85%的泥沙;草篱改变了降雨过程中坡面内部土壤因沉积作用导致的再分布,但对整个坡面土壤侵蚀的空间分布规律无明显影响.     

紫色土坡耕地可溶性有机碳淋失特征

可溶性有机碳(dissolved organic carbon,DOC)在土壤-水界面的径流迁移是土壤有机碳损失的主要形式之一,其迁移损失对土壤有机碳库的源汇功能有重要的影响。为探明紫色土坡耕地DOC的径流迁移特征,利用可测壤中流的径流小区观测壤中流DOC的迁移,结合夏玉米不同生长期土壤DOC含量动态变化分析,研究紫色土壤中流DOC淋失过程与通量。结果表明,土壤DOC含量在玉米生长期逐渐增加,到抽雄期达到最大值,收获期逐渐降至最低。2009—2011年壤中流平均径流量为264 mm,占夏季径流量的68%,表明壤中流是紫色土坡耕地径流的主要形式。壤中流径流量与降雨量呈现极显著正相关性(P0.01),与降水强度相关性不显著。壤中流过程DOC质量浓度表现为先升后降再趋于稳定的趋势,且与径流速率呈极显著正相关关系(P0.01)。3年内次降雨产流事件中壤中流DOC质量浓度为1.7～4.6 mg·L~(-1),平均为3.2 mg·L~(-1)。壤中流DOC迁移负荷分别为565.5、802.1和1 090.1mg·m~(-2),平均年累积迁移负荷为819.2mg·m~(-2)。DOC淋失量在玉米不同生长时期变化较为明显,主要发生在抽雄期至成熟期,淋失总量为658.4mg·m~(-2),占年平均淋失负荷的81%,与玉米生长期土壤DOC含量变化趋势基本一致。研究结果可为调控紫色土坡耕地DOC迁移淋失及评价土壤有机碳平衡提供一定的参考和依据。     

华南红壤坡面产流产沙过程模拟降雨试验研究

暴雨扰动和径流冲刷是华南红壤坡地土壤侵蚀的主要动因,分析模拟降雨条件下华南红壤坡面的水流动力学特征对于揭示其内在机制以及构建物理模型具有重要的意义。通过室内35场不同雨强(30、60、90、120、180、210、270 mm.h-1)、不同坡度(5°、10°、15°、20°、25°)的人工模拟降雨试验,研究了华南红壤侵蚀的产流产沙过程、红壤侵蚀的水动力机制。试验结果表明:红壤坡面模拟降雨条件下,次降雨过程中,坡面产流过程同时受降雨及下垫面状况变化的共同影响作用,产流产沙均表现为波动变化过程。径流过程表现为初期0～10 min为波动增加过程,10 min以后径流量的波动逐渐趋于平稳;径流量与降雨强度间呈线性正相关关系,雨强越大侵蚀产流的径流量也越大;产沙过程表现为侵蚀发生的前期波动过程比较剧烈,随着侵蚀过程逐渐趋于稳定,侵蚀产沙量值逐渐趋于一个稳定值,总的来说大雨强下侵蚀产沙量趋于的稳定值也较大;对于不同坡度(5°、10°、15°、20°、25°)、30 mm.h-1的模拟降雨条件下,红壤坡面仅产生径流,而无侵蚀产沙。     

黄土高原吕二沟流域不同植被下的坡面径流特征

为研究不同植被下的坡面径流及其组分特征,选择黄土高原丘陵沟壑区第三副区典型小流域不同植被为研究对象,采用野外定位观测与室内试验相结合的方法,分析坡面上不同植被下的径流特征,以期为该区域的森林植被恢复与经营提供理论依据和技术支撑。结果表明:不同的林分由于其植被情况、土壤状况、根系等其他条件的不同,其对地表径流、壤中流等径流组分的影响有所差异,在相同的降雨条件下,4个不同植被类型的径流小区其产流量表现为灌木混交刺槐油松,地表径流量也表现出相同的规律,表现为灌木刺槐油松混交,而壤中流量则不同于上述两者,表现为混交油松灌木刺槐。刺槐和灌木径流小区的坡面径流主要形式为地表径流,分别占总径流的95.61%和91.62%;混交径流小区的坡面径流主要形式为壤中流,占总径流的90.86%;而油松径流小区的坡面径流各组分所占比例较平均,地表径流和壤中流所占比例分别为61.99%和38.01%。降水是径流产流的最主要的来源,尤其是对于季节性降水明显的黄土高原地区,降雨量达到一定的阈值才会产生径流过程;降雨强度对地表径流和壤中流的影响有所差异;前期土壤含水量是影响坡面产流的一个非常重要的因素。     

不同土地利用模式下红壤坡地雨水产流与结构拟合

模拟主要利用方式构建的垫面为主导因子,采用径流场实测方法,通过4年(1998-2001年)实地观测试验,剖析不同下垫面对雨水地表径流的影响.研究表明:降雨和下垫面是影响地表径流特征的主导因素;年降雨量与地表径流量和系统水土流失量呈正相关.不同垫面地表径流产量有显著性差异;雨水径流过程的土壤和养分流失有相似的表现.在假定雨水年份的基础上,提出"利用坡地集雨优势,构建与单元生态系统水循环平衡相适应的坡地农林复合生态系统,通过水平衡生态建设来维系生态系统的水分平衡"观点.以集雨区水量平衡为基础,从分析坡地水文过程入手,以坡地不同生态系统雨水分配、降雨过程地表径流产量、径流过程的土壤及养分流失量为参数,以生产灌溉对集雨的要求、坡地不同生态系统对雨水侵蚀的承载力、坡地雨水运移过程对环境和区域洪涝灾害的影响为约束条件,拟合出红壤丘岗坡地农林复合生态系统构建适宜的土地利用结构:人工林占30%,人工草地占15%,果药茶园占30%,耕地占20%,自然保护区占5%.该用地比例(结构)既满足于地貌单元(集雨区)生态系统利用坡地集雨维持系统水循环平衡的要求,也满足于坡地农林复合生态系统的可持续性保护的要求.     

不同农作制对四川紫色丘陵区地表径流氮、磷流失的影响

以小麦(Triticum aestivum)-玉米(Zea mays)轮作制为基础,通过在仁寿县建立18个径流小区监测试验,对4种不同农作制与4种施肥水平下各小区径流水样中的氮、磷含量进行了分析.探讨了四川紫色丘陵区坡耕地氮、磷流失系数及其影响因素.结果表明,氮流失总量随施氮量而增加,在增量施肥+横坡种植方式下最大,为0.326 kg·hm~(-2);氮流失总量和流失系数在优化施肥+横坡种植+秸秆覆盖+植物篱方式下最小,其流失总量为0.270kg·hm~(-2),流失系数为0.009%0磷流失总量和流失系数在不同处理方式下总体上虽较为接近,但增量施肥+横坡种植方式下磷的流失总量最大,为0.020kg·hm~(-2);而优化施肥+横坡种植+秸秆覆盖+植物篱最小,为0.015kg·hm~(-2).研究表明,优化施肥、横坡种植、秸秆覆盖和植物篱拦蓄地表径流作用明显,是遏制耕地氮、磷流失的有效途径.     

不同耕作措施对采煤沉陷区坡耕地玉米产量和水分利用效率的影响

针对采煤沉陷区坡耕地的水土流失问题,通过田间试验,以平作为对照(CK),研究平作+残茬覆盖(T1)、横坡垄作(T2)和横坡垄作+残茬覆盖(T3)对坡耕地夏玉米籽粒产量和水分利用效率的影响。结果表明,从苗期到拔节期,残茬覆盖明显降低了土壤水分的无效蒸发,2个残茬覆盖处理(T1和T3)0~100 cm土壤含水量显著高于CK(P0.05);到拔节期时,T1和T3处理土壤含水量分别比CK提高9.64%和9.74%。玉米拔节后降雨增多,与CK相比,T1、T2和T3处理地表径流减少,坡耕地的保水保肥能力提高。T1、T2和T3处理还显著提高了玉米的产量、水分利用效率、降雨利用效率和氮肥偏生产力(P0.05),其中T3处理保水保肥和增产效果最好,其玉米的产量、水分利用效率、降雨利用效率和氮肥偏生产力分别较CK提高16.59%、31.20%、16.55%和16.59%。通过横坡垄作并附以秸杆覆盖是适用于采煤沉陷区坡耕地的有效农耕措施。     

植物篱对红壤坡耕地的水土保持效应及其机理研究

在浙江诸暨红壤丘陵山区的野外径流小区条件下,设计5种不同植物篱种植模式,结合自然降雨、人工模拟暴雨试验、稀土元素(REE)示踪、土壤抗蚀性评价等方法,研究植物篱的减流减沙效应和控制机理.结果显示,与裸坡相比,自然降雨下麦冬双行植物篱处理地表径流量降低39.4％,土壤流失量降低65.8％,效果最佳.降雨前土壤含水量能显著影响径流和土壤流失的发生特征.土壤容重和孔隙度可作为衡量植物篱控制水土流失效应的最佳指标.根据17个抗蚀性指标建立植物篱条件下红壤抗蚀性的综合评价指标体系,评价结果表明土壤综合抗蚀性由高到低依次为麦冬双行、黄花菜+麦冬双行、黄花菜双行、麦冬单行、黄花菜单行和裸坡.不同坡位植物篱对土壤抗蚀性的影响存在差异,侵蚀泥沙主要来源集中在中下坡位.     

川中丘陵区紫色土坡耕地土壤侵蚀特征

利用137Cs示踪方法与耕作侵蚀模型评价了川中丘陵区紫色土坡耕地土壤侵蚀速率,并通过比较分析方法探讨了2种典型坡耕地-短陡坡与缓长坡耕地-土壤侵蚀特征差异。结果表明,短陡坡耕地土壤侵蚀速率高达52.6 t.hm-2.a-1,是缓长坡耕地土壤侵蚀速率（26.7 t.hm-2.a-1）的2倍。耕作侵蚀是短陡坡耕地的主要侵蚀过程,它整体性搬运土壤,其对土壤总侵蚀的贡献高达74%。水蚀是缓长坡耕地的主要侵蚀过程,其分选性搬运土壤,对土壤总侵蚀的贡献为55%。短陡坡耕地与缓长坡耕地土壤侵蚀速率均沿着向下坡方向逐渐降低,但短陡坡耕地土壤侵蚀速率下降梯度明显高于缓长坡耕地。耕作侵蚀导致两种坡耕地的坡顶土壤损失最为严重。因此,川中丘陵区的耕作侵蚀风险应该引起重视。     

不同覆被下红壤坡地地表径流及其养分流失特征

通过对南方红壤坡地农作区、茶园、柑橘园、退化区和恢复区5种不同利用方式所产生的地表径流量的全年连续观测及其径流水中养分含量分析,结果表明:覆被植物群落类型单一化和农事耕作都能增加地表径流量、次数和增加养分流失,5种类型地表径流量不论是月平均径流量还是年总径流量,其大小关系为农作区*>茶园*>柑橘园>退化区>恢复区*,产流次数也是恢复区最少,其余4种类型基本一致;径流水中总P、K 、Ca2 、Mg2和SO42-流失量以农作区达到最大,茶园和柑橘园次之,然后是退化区和,恢复区的径流各养分流失量量少,耕作区的总P、K 、Ca2 、Mg2 和SO42-流失量大于非耕作区,覆被植物群落类型少的总P、K 、Ca2 、Mg2 和SO42-流失量大于覆被植物群落类型复杂.综合考虑,红壤坡地用来耕作可以加剧水土和土壤养分流失,自然植被对红壤坡地保持水土和养分效果最佳,如果种植经济价值较高的果林和药、茶、草等需采用复种方式,避免单一种植和减少人工扰动,以便维持坡地土壤利用的可持续性.     

Acid rain and its ecological consequences

Acidification of rain-water is identified as one of the most serious environmental problems of transboundary nature. Acid rain is mainly a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids depending upon the relative quantities of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen emissions. Due to the interaction of these acids with other constituents of the atmosphere, protons are released causing increase in the soil acidity Lowering of soil pH mobilizes and leaches away nutrient cations and increases availability of toxic heavy metals. Such changes in the soil chemical characteristics reduce the soil fertility which ultimately causes the negative impact on growth and productivity of forest trees and crop plants. Acidification of water bodies causes large scale negative impact on aquatic organisms including fishes. Acidification has some indirect effects on human health also. Acid rain affects each and every components of ecosystem. Acid rain also damages man-made materials and structures. By reducing the emission of the precursors of acid rain and to some extent by liming, the problem of acidification of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem has been reduced during last two decades.     

黄土中矿物元素的淋溶释放研究

选取我国西北地区广泛分布的黄土进行模拟降水淋溶实验,研究了在动态淋溶系统中盐基离子和ＳｉＯ２、Ｃｌ－等黄土主要组份的释放规律及淋出液的ｐＨ值变化特点,在此基础上对黄土中各矿物元素的淋溶释放机制进行了探讨。结果表明,黄土中的Ｎａ＋、Ｃａ２＋、Ｍｇ２＋、Ｃｌ－主要通过快速的无机盐溶解过程淋失,而Ｋ＋、ＳｉＯ２的淋溶释放则与缓慢的硅酸盐矿物风化有关。粗略的通量计算结果显示,在黄河流域,降水淋溶侵蚀作用每年可从黄土中淋失盐基离子４０．７ × １０９ｍｏｌ,占黄河溶解态物质入海通量的近２０%。     

Self-organization of tropical seasonal rain forest in southwest China

How to measure development of ecosystems is both a theoretical and practical question in ecology. Species richness and biomass accumulation are familiar figures of merit, but they cannot be instant watched. Self-organization is a tacit character. However, methods to measure the degree of self-organization of ecosystem are problematic. To this end Lin et al. (2009) have devised indicators of energy capture and dissipation so that self-organization defined via maximum energy dissipation can be quantified easily. Here the method is used to analyze long-term data (2004-2006) of a tropical seasonal rain forest included in the ChinaFLUX program. Three years of average self-organization values were clearly separated by seasonal variation. Reflection and long wave radiation are the main two pathways of energy loss. For tropical seasonal rain forest studied, long wave radiation contributed most to energy loss, and was negatively correlated with energy capture ability (Rn/DR). The nocturnal difference between canopy and air temperatures had a strong negative correlation with the long wave radiation loss ratio. However, the long wave radiation loss ratio was slightly lower than the reflection loss ratio in rainy season, when values were very low. Precipitation and wind had significant impact on energy dissipation ability in the hot dry season, but the correlation coefficients between precipitation and wind with thermal response numbers (TRNs) were very low. The results indicated that the self-organization estimation system based on “maximum energy dissipation theory” is applicable for tropical forest.     

酸沉降对森林植物影响过程和机理

文章丰要包括如下几方而的内容：（1）概述了酸沉降作用下森林衰退的状况及其相关工作的开展情况；（2）总结了酸沉降对森林植物的影响过程和机理；（3）阐述了酸沉降对森林植物影响研究的模型和临界酸负荷值的确定；（4）探讨了存在的问题和未来值得研究的方向。指山未来的研究方向主要是：酸沉降对森林生态系统的影响机理和森林生态系统对酸沉降的反馈机制；酸沉降对非优势种、稀有种及低等植物的影响；酸沉降与其它环境因子对森林植物的共同影响；酸沉降的监控和预测，建立适合我斟实际情况的研究模型；将常规分析手段和分子生物学技术相结合，加强抗性植物和指示植物的筛选工作；加强受损森林植被的恢复和重建工作；开展酸沉降对森林植被的格局动态及森林演替动态变化研究。     

Leaf herbivory and decomposability in a Malaysian tropical rain forest

There is accumulating evidence that similar suites of plant traits may affect leaf palatability and leaf litter decomposability. However, the possible association between leaf herbivory and litter decomposition rates across species in species-diverse natural ecosystems such as tropical rain forests remains unexplored, despite its importance in estimating the herbivory effects on carbon and nutrient cycling of ecosystems. We found no strong association between leaf herbivory and litter decomposition rates across 40 tree species in a Malaysian tropical rain forest, even though the leaf and litter traits were tightly correlated. This is because the leaf and litter traits related to herbivory and decomposition rates in the field were inconsistent. Leaf toughness accounted for only a small part of the variation in the herbivory rate, whereas a number of litter traits (the leaf mass per area, lignin to nitrogen ratio, and condensed tannin concentration) accurately predicted the decomposition rate across species. These results suggest that herbivory rate across species may not be strongly related to single leaf traits, probably because plant-herbivore interactions in tropical rain forests are highly diverse; on the other hand, plant-decomposer interactions are less specific and can be governed by litter chemicals. We also investigated two factors, phylogeny and tree functional types, that could affect the relationship between herbivory and decomposition across species. Phylogenetic relatedness among the species did not affect the relationship between herbivory and decomposition. In contrast, when the plants were segregated according to their leaf emergence pattern, we found a significant positive relationship between herbivory and decomposition rates for continuous-leafing species. In these species, the condensed tannin to N ratios in leaves and litter were related to herbivory and decomposition rates, respectively. However, we did not observe a similar trend for synchronous-leafing species. These results suggest that the relationship between herbivory and decomposition may be more greatly affected by functional types than by phylogenetic relatedness among species. In conclusion, our results suggest that well-defended leaves are not necessarily less decomposable litter in a tropical rain forest community, implying that herbivory may not generate positive feedback for carbon and nutrient cycling in this type of ecosystem.     

酸雨对外来植物入侵的影响

酸雨和外来种入侵都是全球关注的问题。结合外来入侵植物的生态适应特性以及酸雨的危害特征,系统分析了酸雨对外来植物入侵产生的影响。酸雨对外来植物入侵的影响是复杂多样的。酸雨导致群落冠层稀疏,群落透光率增加,加之氮沉降后土壤、水体氮素的增加,有利于生长力强的外来喜阳植物入侵;酸雨加速土壤酸化,促使基本离子淋失以及A1毒等危害植物的生长发育,植物的内源激素以及化感作用发生改变,适应力和耐受力强的外来植物在与本地植物竞争中处于相对优势而成为入侵种;酸雨以及外来植物入侵改变了土壤微生物群落结构,影响本地植物的生长而促使外来植物的入侵。     

Nutrient regulation of organic matter decomposition in a tropical rain forest

Terrestrial biosphere-atmosphere CO2 exchange is dominated by tropical forests, so understanding how nutrient availability affects carbon (C) decomposition in these ecosystems is central to predicting the global C cycle's response to environmental change. In tropical rain forests, phosphorus (P) limitation of primary production and decomposition is believed to be widespread, but direct evidence is rare. We assessed the effects of nitrogen (N) and P fertilization on litter-layer organic matter decomposition in two neighboring tropical rain forests in southwest Costa Rica that are similar in most ways, but that differ in soil P availability. The sites contain 100-200 tree species per hectare and between species foliar nutrient content is variable. To control for this heterogeneity, we decomposed leaves collected from a widespread neotropical species, Brosimum utile. Mass loss during decomposition was rapid in both forests, with B. utile leaves losing >80% of their initial mass in <300 days. High organic matter solubility throughout decomposition combined with high rainfall support a model of litter-layer decomposition in these rain forests in which rapid mass loss in the litter layer is dominated by leaching of dissolved organic matter (DOM) rather than direct CO2 mineralization. While P fertilization did not significantly affect mass loss in the litter layer, it did stimulate P immobilization in decomposing material, leading to increased P content and a lower C:P ratio in soluble DOM. In turn, increased P content of leached DOM stimulated significant increases in microbial mineralization of DOM in P-fertilized soil. These results show that, while nutrients may not affect mass loss during decomposition in nutrient-poor, wet ecosystems, they may ultimately regulate CO2 losses (and hence C storage) by limiting microbial mineralization of DOM leached from the litter layer to soil.     

深圳市酸雨变化特征及形成原因分析

深圳市长年属于较重酸雨区,对城市生态带来重要影响,酸雨污染已经成为当前迫切需要解决的环境问题。为了了解近年来深圳市降水的变化特征及污染状况,利用2001—-2011年的降水监测数据,分析了降水酸化程度及化学组分特征,探讨了致酸原因,’为酸雨污染控制对策制定提供基础依据。研究结果表明,深圳市酸雨污染在2004--2006年达到较高水平（降水pH值4,49～4．59）,2007年以来明显有所改善（降水pH值4．73～5．02）,酸雨频率也显著降低。在时间变化上呈现夏季酸雨污染相对较严重,在空间变化上表现出宝安区和龙岗区酸雨污染相对较轻。相对于北京等城市,深圳市降水中离子浓度较低,同时大气中污染物浓度也较低,表明深圳市降水比较清洁,但由于大气中碱性物质含量较低,导致降水酸性较强。深圳市近年降水[SO42-]／[NO3-]的比值不断下降并低于2,硫酸硝酸混合型酸雨特征明显,表明机动车对降水酸性的影响不断增强。Cl-和Na＋对降水阴阳离子的贡献较高（分别达到24％和30％）,反映降水受海洋的影响较大。深圳与广州、东莞、佛山等城市的降水酸度和酸雨频率变化趋势较为一致,区域传输对酸雨形成也有重要影响。     

Common ectomycorrhizal networks may maintain monodominance in a tropical rain forest

Most tropical rain forests contain diverse arrays of tree species that form arbuscular mycorrhizae. In contrast, the less common monodominant rain forests, in which one tree species comprises more than 50% of the canopy, frequently contain ectomycorrhizal (ECM) associates. In this study, I explored the potential for common ECM networks, created by aggregations of ECM trees, to enhance seedling survivorship near parent trees. I determined the benefit conferred by the common ECM network on seedling growth and survivorship of an ECM monodominant species in Guyana. Seedlings with access to an ECM network had greater growth (73% greater), leaf number (55% more), and survivorship (47% greater) than seedlings without such access, suggesting that the ECM network provides a survivorship advantage. A survey of wild seedlings showed positive distance-dependent distribution and survival with respect to conspecific adults. These experimental and survey results suggest that the negative distance-dependent mechanisms at the seedling stage thought to maintain tropical rain forest diversity are reversed for ECM seedlings, which experience positive feedbacks from the ECM network. These results may in part explain the local monodominance of an ECM tree species within the matrix of high-diversity, tropical rain forest.     

Controls over foliar N:P ratios in tropical rain forests

Correlations between foliar nutrient concentrations and soil nutrient availability have been found in multiple ecosystems. These relationships have led to the use of foliar nutrients as an index of nutrient status and to the prediction of broadscale patterns in ecosystem processes. More recently, a growing interest in ecological stoichiometry has fueled multiple analyses of foliar nitrogen:phosphorus (N:P) ratios within and across ecosystems. These studies have observed that N:P values are generally elevated in tropical forests when compared to higher latitude ecosystems, adding weight to a common belief that tropical forests are generally N rich and P poor. However, while these broad generalizations may have merit, their simplicity masks the enormous environmental heterogeneity that exists within the tropics; such variation includes large ranges in soil fertility and climate, as well as the highest plant species diversity of any biome. Here we present original data on foliar N and P concentrations from 150 mature canopy tree species in Costa Rica and Brazil, and combine those data with a comprehensive new literature synthesis to explore the major sources of variation in foliar N:P values within the tropics. We found no relationship between N:P ratios and either latitude or mean annual precipitation within the tropics alone. There is, however, evidence of seasonal controls; in our Costa Rica sites, foliar N:P values differed by 25% between wet and dry seasons. The N:P ratios do vary with soil P availability and/or soil order, but there is substantial overlap across coarse divisions in soil type, and perhaps the most striking feature of the data set is variation at the species level. Taken as a whole, our results imply that the dominant influence on foliar N:P ratios in the tropics is species variability and that, unlike marine systems and perhaps many other terrestrial biomes, the N:P stoichiometry of tropical forests is not well constrained. Thus any use of N:P ratios in the tropics to infer larger-scale ecosystem processes must comprehensively account for the diversity of any given site and recognize the broad range in nutrient requirements, even at the local scale.