Frequency of decompression illness among recent and extinct mammals and “reptiles”: a review

The frequency of decompression illness was high among the extinct marine “reptiles” and very low among the marine mammals. Signs of decompression illness are still found among turtles but whales and seals are unaffected. In humans, the risk of decompression illness is five times increased in individuals with Patent Foramen Ovale; this condition allows blood shunting from the venous circuit to the systemic circuit. This right-left shunt is characteristic of the “reptile” heart, and it is suggested that this could contribute to the high frequency of decompression illness in the extinct reptiles.     

Field and laboratory evaluations of the effects of “cold shock” on fish resident in and around a thermal discharge: an overview

In the 1970s, resource agencies suggested that thermal discharges could affect aquatic life including macrophytes, plankton, and fish. It was suspected that heat and cold shock would affect fish health and behavior, and that thermal plumes might affect migration. From 1978 to 1985, Rochester Gas & Electric Corporation (RG&E) conducted field and laboratory studies on fish to evaluate a power plant’s rapid winter shutdown. Lake Ontario studies included observations of fish in the near-field plume during a shutdown, and resident fish were tagged and used to study immediate and acclimated cold shock. Over 500 fish representing 17 species, captured in and around a power station plume, were used in these cold-shock studies. Five coldwater species accounted for approximately 65% of the tested fish, although clupeids, and coolwater and warmwater fish were evaluated when captured. The internal temperature of many fish was recorded upon capture. Survival for the dominant species was ≃100%, although clupeid survival was ≤10% (n=128). Tagged fish also provided long-term survival, migration, and plume-residence data. To confirm field data, laboratory cold-shock tests were conducted under controlled conditions using hatchery-reared juvenile rainbow trout. The results indicated, for example, that the lower lethal limit for rainbow trout was slightly below 1.0°C, corroborating field data for rainbow trout. These cold-shock studies suggest that previous generic guidelines, such as those provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), are probably too conservative.     

Tracking pigeons in a magnetic anomaly and in magnetically “quiet” terrain

Pigeons were released at two sites of equal distance from the loft, one within a magnetic anomaly, the other in magnetically quiet terrain, and their tracks were recorded with the help of GPS receivers. A comparison of the beginning of the tracks revealed striking differences: within the anomaly, the initial phase lasted longer, and the distance flown was longer, with the pigeons' headings considerably farther from the home direction. During the following departure phase, the birds were well homeward oriented at the magnetically quiet site, whereas they continued to be disoriented within the anomaly. Comparing the tracks in the anomaly with the underlying magnetic contours shows considerable differences between individuals, without a common pattern emerging. The differences in magnetic intensity along the pigeons' path do not differ from a random distribution of intensity differences around the release site, indicating that the magnetic contours do not directly affect the pigeons' routes. Within the anomaly, pigeons take longer until their flights are oriented, but 5 km from the release point, the birds, still within the anomaly, are also significantly oriented in the home direction. These findings support the assumption that magnetically anomalous conditions initially interfere with the pigeons' navigational processes, with birds showing rather individual responses in their attempts to overcome these problems.     

The riddle of “life,” a biologist’s critical view

To approach the question of what life is, we first have to state that life exists exclusively as the "being-alive" of discrete spatio-temporal entities. The simplest "unit" that can legitimately be considered to be alive is an intact prokaryotic cell as a whole. In this review, I discuss critically various aspects of the nature and singularity of living beings from the biologist's point of view. In spite of the enormous richness of forms and performances in the biotic realm, there is a considerable uniformity in the chemical "machinery of life," which powers all organisms. Life represents a dynamic state; it is performance of a system of singular kind: "life-as-action" approach. All "life-as-things" hypotheses are wrong from the beginning. Life is conditioned by certain substances but not defined by them. Living systems are endowed with a power to maintain their inherent functional order (organization) permanently against disruptive influences. The term organization inherently involves the aspect of functionality, the teleonomic, purposeful cooperation of structural and functional elements. Structures in turn require information for their specification, and information presupposes a source. This source is constituted in living systems by the nucleic acids. Organisms are unique in having a capacity to use, maintain, and replicate internal information, which yields the basis for their specific organization in its perpetuation. The existence of a genome is a necessary condition for life and one of the absolute differences between living and non-living matter. Organization includes both what makes life possible and what is determined by it. It is not something "implanted" into the living beings but has its origin and capacity for maintenance within the system itself. It is the essence of life. The property of being alive we can consider as an emergent property of cells that corresponds to a certain level of self-maintained complex order or organization.     

Male fighting and “territoriality” within colonies of the ant Cardiocondyla venustula

The ant genus Cardiocondyla is characterized by a bizarre male polymorphism with wingless fighter males and winged disperser males. Winged males have been lost convergently in several clades, and in at least one of them, wingless males have evolved mutual tolerance. To better understand the evolutionary pathways of reproductive tactics, we investigated Cardiocondyla venustula, a species, which in a phylogenetic analysis clusters with species with fighting and species with mutually tolerant, wingless males. Wingless males of C. venustula use their strong mandibles to kill freshly eclosed rival males and also engage in short fights with other adult males, but in addition show a novel behavior hitherto not reported from social insect males: they spread out in the natal nest and defend “territories” against other males. Ant males therefore show a much larger variety of reproductive tactics than previously assumed.     

Science as a “fixed point”? Quantification and boundary objects in international climate politics

Our understanding of climate change is dominated by quantified scientific knowledge, with science and politics usually seen as operating separately and autonomously from one another. By investigating a particular fact box in the IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), this paper challenges the assumption that science and policy can be clearly delineated. The so-called “Bali Box” gained a prominent role in negotiations leading up to the Copenhagen Conference in 2009, as it was widely seen as providing a “fixed point” – a quantified scientific answer to the question of equitable effort-sharing between North and South. This understanding of the Bali Box triggered a backlash, however, when the hybrid character of the box as an assemblage of science, political considerations and moral judgements became evident to actors in the negotiations. The paper employs the notion of boundary objects to analyse the history of the Bali Box, and argues that climate politics will benefit from a richer understanding of the interplay between science and policy. Moving beyond characterizations that place the Bali Box on either side of a clear boundary between the scientific and the political, we suggest focusing instead on what the Box as a hybrid product is doing, i.e. how it simplifies and quantifies, what it covers and what it leaves outside.     

Histological,chemical, and morphological reexamination of the “heart” of a small Late Cretaceous <Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Thescelosaurus</Emphasis>

A three-dimensional, iron-cemented structure found in the anterior thoracic cavity of articulated Thescelosaurus skeletal remains was hypothesized to be the fossilized remains of the animal’s four-chambered heart. This was important because the finding could be interpreted to support a hypothesis that non-avian dinosaurs were endothermic. Mammals and birds, the only extant organisms with four-chambered hearts and single aortae, are endotherms. The hypothesis that this Thescelosaurus has a preserved heart was controversial, and therefore, we reexamined it using higher-resolution computed tomography, paleohistological examination, X-ray diffraction analysis, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. This suite of analyses allows for detailed morphological and chemical examination beyond what was provided in the original work. Neither the more detailed examination of the gross morphology and orientation of the thoracic “heart” nor the microstructural studies supported the hypothesis that the structure was a heart. The more advanced computed tomography showed the same three areas of low density as the earlier studies with no evidence of additional low-density areas as might be expected from examinations of an ex situ ostrich heart. Microstructural examination of a fragment taken from the “heart” was consistent with cemented sand grains, and no chemical signal consistent with a biological origin was detected. However, small patches of cell-like microstructures were preserved in the sandstone matrix of the thoracic structure. A possible biological origin for these microstructures is the focus of ongoing investigation.     

What is the real “price” of more prenatal screening and fewer diagnostic procedures? Costs and trade-offs in the genomic era

Any screening approach, including with cell-free DNA, will have an inferior detection rate compared with 100% diagnostic testing with chromosomal microarrays. Cell-free DNA-based screening, however, should not be seen as a threat to informed choice or maximising the benefits of diagnostic testing. Screening methods have become so much better that more women are now comfortable relying on such screening and do not need the certainty of a diagnostic test. This has not lead to a decline in detection of fetal chromosome abnormalities—in fact, we are now seeing historically high yields from prenatal screening. There are both economic and ethical consequences of offering universal diagnostic testing and abandoning the presumption of a normal infant in otherwise uncomplicated pregnancies. However, for some women, comprehensive information and diagnostic accuracy are important. Offering these women all options, with a careful and comprehensive explanation of the risks and benefits of each, results in outcomes that are best aligned with woman's preferences while at the same time requiring fewer diagnostic tests and lowering costs. It is one of the primary challenges of the modern era of prenatal testing to ensure that women receive sufficient information on which to make informed decisions.     

Response of “Alamo” switchgrass tissue chemistry and biomass to nitrogen fertilization in West Tennessee,USA

Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is a perennial, warm-season grass that has been identified as a potential biofuel feedstock over a large part of North America. We examined above- and belowground responses to nitrogen fertilization in “Alamo” switchgrass grown in West Tennessee, USA. The fertilizer study included a spring and fall sampling of 5-year old switchgrass grown under annual applications of 0, 67, and 202 kg N ha^?1 (as ammonium nitrate). Fertilization changed switchgrass biomass allocation as indicated by root:shoot ratios. End-of-growing season root:shoot ratios (mean ± SE) declined significantly (P ≤ 0.05) at the highest fertilizer nitrogen treatment (2.16 ± 0.08, 2.02 ± 0.18, and 0.88 ± 0.14, respectively, at 0, 67, and 202 kg N ha^?1). Fertilization also significantly increased above- and belowground nitrogen concentrations and decreased plant C:N ratios. Data are presented for coarse live roots, fine live roots, coarse dead roots, fine dead roots, and rhizomes. At the end of the growing season, there was more carbon and nitrogen stored in belowground biomass than aboveground biomass. Fertilization impacted switchgrass tissue chemistry and biomass allocation in ways that potentially impact soil carbon cycle processes and soil carbon storage.     

How is a giant sperm ejaculated? Anatomy and function of the sperm pump, or “Zenker organ,” in Pseudocandona marchica (Crustacea, Ostracoda, Candonidae)

‘Giant sperm’, in terms of exceptionally long spermatozoa, occur in a variety of taxa in the animal kingdom, predominantly in arthropod groups, but also in flatworms, mollusks, and others. In some freshwater ostracods (Cypridoidea), filamentous sperm cells reach up to ten times the animal’s body length; nonetheless, during a single copulation several dozen sperm cells can be transferred to the female’s seminal receptacle. This highly effective ejaculation has traditionally been credited to a chitinous-muscular structure within the seminal duct, which has been interpreted as a sperm pump. We investigated this organ, also known as the Zenker organ, of a cypridoid ostracod, Pseudocandona marchica, utilizing light and electron microscope techniques and produced a three-dimensional reconstruction based on serial semi-thin histological sections. This paper shows that numerous muscle fibers surround the central tube of the Zenker organ, running in parallel with the central tube and that a thin cellular layer underlies the muscular layer. A cellular inner tube exists inside the central tube. A chitinous-cellular structure at the entrance of the organ has been recognized as an ejaculatory valve. In male specimens during copulation, we confirmed a small hole derived from the passage of a single spermatozoon through the valve. The new data allowed for proposing a detailed course of operation of the Zenker organ during giant sperm ejaculation.     

“Waste”-ing away:Presence of Cu ions influences microbial degradation kinetics and metabolite formation of the prevalent brominated flame retardant BDE-47

<正>Have you ever wondered what happened to that old cell phone you threw out last month? How about the 150 million other cell phones that were also disposed of in the past year?Although the world population has doubled in the past 50years,global consumption of electronic devices has increased     

Which “fairness”, for whom,and why? An empirical analysis of plural notions of fairness in Fairtrade Carbon Projects,using Q methodology

Fairness is a relative concept with multiple, subjective and competing notions of what it is, how to achieve it, and for which beneficiaries. Fairtrade International's collaborative efforts to develop a standard to certify Fairtrade Carbon Credits (FCCs) brought together multiple stakeholders in a deliberative context. This paper uses Q methodology to empirically assess the notions of fairness this wider consultation group held. Three distinct ‘factors’ (or perspectives) are identified, and discussed in relation to a multi-dimensional framework for exploring fairness. The first factor prioritises development delivered through organisations, participation in decision-making and use of minimum prices to adjust trade imbalances. The second factor conceptualises a non-exclusive approach maximising generation and sales of FCCs, involving a commodity chain where everyone performs their optimum function with financial transparency and information-sharing to facilitate negotiations. The third factor involves minimising intervention, allowing carbon commodity chains and project set-ups to function efficiently, and make their own adjustments to enhance benefits access and quality received by beneficiaries. The three factors reflect debates within carbon and fair trade spheres about who should be playing which roles, who should be accessing which benefits, and how people should be supported to interact on an uneven playing field. Communicating findings to standards organisations enables a more open and inclusive policy process. Our research provides a critical reflection on these plural notions of fairness, identifying areas of (dis)agreement within the FCC dialogue, and provides a wider, yet manageable, set of inputs for supporting the FCC process during its inception and subsequent implementation. Clearer definitions of “fairness” are also useful for standards organisations in reviewing ex post whether “fairness” goals have been met.     

“The commons” as a dynamic variable in understanding strategic alliances of scale: A groundwater case study in Pajaro Valley,California

Groundwater, a critical resource in many parts of the world, is often characterized as a common pool resource (Brozovic et al., 2006). Multiple individuals utilize groundwater from a basin, and each person has the capacity to reduce the quantity or quality available to others. We turn to a case study of the Pajaro Groundwater Basin in Central California to re-envision the characterization of “commons.” While providing a useful frame from which to analyze groundwater depletion in the Pajaro, we find Common Pool Resource (CPR) theory to be imprecise in its approach to a geographic scale. The notion of the “commons” is central to CPR studies, but there is wide divergence in what the “commons” constitutes, both spatially and socially (Laerhoven and Ostrom, 2007). Rather than propose a normative definition for the “commons,” we suggest that the “commons” as a geographic category is socially constructed and dynamically active over time, akin to the analytic of scale as developed within the fields of political ecology and geography. This move from situating the “commons” as a fixed and discrete geographic area to that which is constantly changing and relational helps us to better understand the ways in which water users collaborate and communicate around shared groundwater sources.