Power sector reform in Central Asia: observations on the diverse experiences of some formerly Soviet Republics and Mongolia

We examine the paths to structural reform of the electricity sectors in six former communist Central Asian countries, present data on progress towards solving identified problems, and develop economic hypotheses linking the structural changes with progress identified. This analysis is used to derive suggestions for the further structural reforms of the sectors. The experiences documented make a strong case for (i) improving the transparency of operations of Central Asia's power utilities, beginning with the transactions between subsidiaries; and (ii) improving incentives for distribution companies to perform their billing and cash collection responsibilities, both through improved accountability, and, in the countries studied, some privatisation of these commercial services. They also highlight the critical role of governmental commitment to restoring discipline, the importance of setting limited and consistent objectives for regulators, and the function of transmission company independence in promoting economically and environmentally efficient and sustainable regional power trade.     

High-resolution spatial distribution of greenhouse gas emissions in the residential sector

The development of high-resolution greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories is an important step towards emission reduction in different sectors. However, most of the spatially explicit approaches that have been developed to date produce outputs at a coarse resolution or do not disaggregate the data by sector. In this study, we present a methodology for assessing GHG emissions from the residential sector by settlements at a fine spatial resolution. In many countries, statistical data about fossil fuel consumption is only available at the regional or country levels. For this reason, we assess energy demand for cooking and water and space heating for each settlement, which we use as a proxy to disaggregate regional fossil fuel consumption data. As energy demand for space heating depends heavily on climatic conditions, we use the heating degree day method to account for this phenomenon. We also take the availability of energy sources and differences in consumption patterns between urban and rural areas into account. Based on the disaggregated data, we assess GHG emissions at the settlement level using country and regional specific coefficients for Poland and Ukraine, two neighboring countries with different energy usage patterns. In addition, we estimate uncertainties in the results using a Monte Carlo method, which takes uncertainties in the statistical data, calorific values, and emission factors into account. We use detailed data on natural gas consumption in Poland and biomass consumption for several regions in Ukraine to validate our approach. We also compare our results to data from the EDGAR (Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research), which shows high agreement in places but also demonstrates the advantage of a higher resolution GHG inventory. Overall, the results show that the approach developed here is universal and can be applied to other countries using their statistical information.

     

“一带一路”沿线国家水资源禀赋及开发利用分析

水资源是基础性的战略资源,开展“一带一路”沿线国家水资源研究对于促进“一带一路”的科学建设具有重要意义。基于世界银行与联合国粮农组织水资源数据库,从水资源开发利用角度入手,分析“一带一路”沿线国家水资源自然禀赋、利用状况,在此基础上进一步分析水资源开发潜力。结果表明：（1）从水资源禀赋来看,“一带一路”沿线国家地表水、地下水和水资源总量均以俄罗斯、中国、东南亚和南亚地区相对较高,中亚、西亚等地区相对较低;人均水资源量则以中东欧、俄罗斯和东南亚地区较高,西亚、南亚地区较低;“一带一路”沿线国家外来水依赖率整体表现为跨境河流下游高,上游及海岛国家低。（2）就水资源利用而言,“一带一路”沿线国家用水量整体呈现“东多西少”的格局,人均用水量表现为“中亚最高,周边较低”的特点;用水结构亚洲国家多以农业用水为主,中东欧国家则多以工业用水为主。（3）水资源开发潜力分析发现,阿拉伯半岛地区各国水资源开发潜力很低,中东欧及东南亚地区水资源开发潜力很高。     

Coping with changing water resources: The case of the Syr Darya river basin in Central Asia

This paper discusses how climatic-hydrological and socio-political developments will affect water allocation in the Syr Darya river basin and which adaptation measures will be needed to cope with changing water resources. In view of the geo-political complexity, climate-driven changes in water availability are of particular importance in this region. Water shortages during summer will become more frequent as precipitation is expected to further decrease and glacial meltwater releases will decrease in the long-term due to reduced glacier volume. Being the main valve to the entire Syr Darya river system, the Toktogul reservoir in Kyrgyzstan could take over, at least partly, the role of glaciers as seasonal water redistributors, thus allowing the generation of energy in winter – benefiting upstream countries – and irrigation for large-scale agriculture in summer – benefiting downstream countries. To date, however, there is no regional consensus on a balanced reservoir management, which currently favours irrigation according to past Soviet priorities. Moreover, the perception of water as a ‘national concern’ in Central Asia discourages efforts towards cooperation between states at the regional level. So far, climate change adaptation has focused on technical rather than institutional solutions. We suggest that policy-relevant adaptation measures should include consistent data collection and dissemination, cross-sectoral collaboration, promotion of national responsibility and initiative, and agreeing on a regional strategy.     

Pursuing an integrated development and climate policy framework in Africa: options for mainstreaming

Climate change presents a major threat to the prospects for sustained economic development in Africa. In spite of this, climate change concerns do not feature prominently in the implementation of national and regional development programmes. The present paper identifies the likely trade-offs and synergies that may emerge from an integrated ‘development-climate’ approach to policy making. Also, the paper presents the case for the formulation and evaluation of an integrated policy approach based on four principle criteria, including; long-term environmental effectiveness, equity considerations, cost-effectiveness and the institutional compatibility of the policy combinations. What is more? The paper suggests specific options for mainstreaming climate change adaptation and mitigation in various sectoral development agenda such as; agricultural intensification, poverty eradication, rural development, urban renewal, energy security of supply and trade. Given the wide divergence of socio-economic systems and the peculiar challenges faced by individual countries in the continent, further research is required on robust country-specific strategies for pursuing an integrated development-climate policy framework.     

中亚地区粮食生产潜力及发展潜力分析——基于GAEZ方法

中亚地区因特殊的地理位置和高粮食生产能力,对维护世界粮食安全意义重大,发掘中亚地区粮食生产潜力有助于全球粮食危机缓解。采用GAEZ方法,结合联合国粮农组织数据库,定量分析了中亚地区5个国家、9种粮食作物的潜在单产及潜在面积,并通过控制粮食单产和生产面积的变化提出三种假设,测算出不同假设下中亚地区的粮食生产潜力、发展潜力和发展潜力幅度。结果表明：中亚地区的哈萨克斯坦粮食生产潜力和发展潜力大;小麦、大麦产量有较大提升空间,高粱、黑麦、谷子、燕麦、荞麦产量提升空间小且潜力集中在哈萨克斯坦,但高粱的发展潜力幅度很大。     

亚洲环境执政理论与实践

发展中国家环境执政能力问题越来越引起人们的关注.在界定环境执政能力概念的基础上,分析了亚洲国家环境执政能力状况以解释这些国家面临的环境问题,并尝试分析亚洲国家环境管理从传统手段向市场手段转变的推动因素,最后提出了亚洲国家转向环境良治的扩大和加强区域、国家和地区机构网络,促进环境政策制定执行过程中权力的下放和向地方政府的转移,增加国家立法和其他政策制定机构中环境非政府组织和社区组织成员的比例,运用战略环境评价和战略环境管理理念,关注中小型企业遵守环境法规等政策、措施方面的建议.     

能源资源开发与区域经济发展协调研究——以我国西北地区为例

本文探讨了能源资源富集、但经济发展相对落后的经济大区能源资源开发同地区经济协调发展的问题。侧重以我国西北地区为例,从实证的角度,阐述了能源开发对地区经济繁荣的意义和作用、富能地区经济系统的空间组织以及推动能源开发同可持续发展相互协调的区域政策要点。     

中国水资源利用效率评估及区域差异研究

水资源危机、水环境恶化已成为我国所面临的严峻挑战,对我国的水资源利用效率进行科学合理的评价,并且讨论造成区域差异的影响因素显得尤为迫切。在全要素生产框架下,将环境要素纳入到效率分析中,利用数据包络分析模型,采用省级层面统计数据,以资本、劳动力和水资源使用量为投入,以国内生产总值与废水排放量为产出,计算我国2000~2011年区域水资源利用效率。研究发现,在时间序列上,我国各省份之间的用水效率差距逐年增大;在空间上,我国的水资源利用效率存在明显的东、中、西部区域差异。进一步研究发现,产业结构、经济发展水平、水资源禀赋、水的基础设施投入对区域水资源利用效率均有显著影响,而水价并没有对水资源利用效率产生显著影响。     

全球变化对跨境淡水资源利用和管理的影响

跨境淡水资源的合理利用和协调管理,已成为当今国际区域经济发展、跨境资源和市场共享、世界生态维护的合作主题,成为下世纪制约区域可持续发展和避免地区冲突的一个关键因素,受到国际社会广泛关注。从边界变化、国际区域合作和经济一体化、气候变化、人口增长、可持续发展等全球趋势对此主题的影响进行了探讨。     

全球跨界水合作的时空结构：领域变迁与尺度分异

在当前全球性淡水危机加剧、水冲突频发的背景下,跨界水合作成为化解水危机,实现国家间和平可持续发展的关键。利用跨界水条约数据,基于网络视角,从全球尺度、区域尺度与国家尺度对跨界水合作的时空结构进行研究。结论如下：（1）1820—2017年全球跨界水合作持续增多,覆盖范围明显扩大,合作领域从边界与水量向联合管理与水质保护转变,合作目的由以规管性为主导向规管性、程序性和原生性并进转变。多边合作与跨界地下水合作是当前全球跨界水合作的发展趋势。（2）同一时期五大洲跨界水合作发展进程与侧重领域存在较大差异;尽管全球跨界水合作网络涵盖的流域与国家日益增多,但其流域覆盖率仍较低。（3）1820—2017年全球跨界水合作网络大致经历了“网络形成—网络扩张—网络分化”三个阶段;欧洲国家间的跨界水合作联系相对较强,亚洲国家在跨界水合作网络中也愈发活跃,区域性与全球性并存是当前跨界水合作网络的重要特征。伴随着亚洲国家日益增长的跨界水合作需求,中国应充分发挥负责任的发展中大国的作用,加强与周边国家的跨界水合作,不断提升自身在全球跨界水资源合作领域的地位。     

Sustainable development and the water–energy–food nexus: A perspective on livelihoods

The water–energy–food nexus is being promoted as a conceptual tool for achieving sustainable development. Frameworks for implementing nexus thinking, however, have failed to explicitly or adequately incorporate sustainable livelihoods perspectives. This is counterintuitive given that livelihoods are key to achieving sustainable development. In this paper we present a critical review of nexus approaches and identify potential linkages with sustainable livelihoods theory and practice, to deepen our understanding of the interrelated dynamics between human populations and the natural environment. Building upon this review, we explore the concept of ‘environmental livelihood security’ – which encompasses a balance between natural resource supply and human demand on the environment to promote sustainability – and develop an integrated nexus-livelihoods framework for examining the environmental livelihood security of a system. The outcome is an integrated framework with the capacity to measure and monitor environmental livelihood security of whole systems by accounting for the water, energy and food requisites for livelihoods at multiple spatial scales and institutional levels. We anticipate this holistic approach will not only provide a significant contribution to achieving national and regional sustainable development targets, but will also be effective for promoting equity amongst individuals and communities in local and global development agendas.     

Implication of the cluster analysis using greenhouse gas emissions of Asian countries to climate change mitigation

Climate change caused by excessive emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere has gained serious attention from the global community for a long time. More and more countries have decided to propose their goals such as Paris agreements, to reduce emitting these heat trapping compounds for sustainability. The Asian region houses dramatic changes with diverse religions and cultures, large populations as well as a rapidly changing socio-economic situations all of which are contributing to generating a mammoth amount of GHGs; hence, they require calls for related studies on climate change strategies. After pre-filtering of GHG emission information, 24 Asian countries have been selected as primary target countries. Hierarchical cluster analysis method using complete linkage technique was successfully applied for appropriate grouping. Six groups were categorized through GHG emission properties with major and minor emission sectors based on the GHG inventory covering energy, industrial processes, agriculture, waste, land use change, and forestry and bunker fuels. Assigning six groups using cluster analysis finally implied that the approach to establish GHG emission boundaries was meaningful to develop further mitigation strategies. Following the outcome of this study, calculating amount of reduction potential in suitable sectors as well as determining best practice, technology, and regulatory framework can be improved by policy makers, environmental scientists, and planners at the different levels. Therefore, this work on reviewing a wide range of GHG emission history and establishing boundaries of emission characteristics would provide further direction of effective climate change mitigation for sustainability and resilience in Asia.     

全球跨境水资源合作时空演变及生成机制

跨境水资源合作对人类社会的可持续发展和国家水权益保障意义重大。以166个国家为研究样本,选择1948—2008年全球跨境水资源合作事件为基础数据,提取合作关系并构建全球跨境水资源合作网络。基于社会网络分析、层次分析等方法,探讨了跨境水合作事件及其网络的时空复杂性,阐述了跨境水合作生成机制与合作类型。研究发现：水合作事件数量与频次呈波动增长,阶段特征显著;水合作网络结构的去中心化、多极化和区域化趋势明显,东西方阵营在冷战时代主导了全球水合作,后冷战时代的热点合作广泛产生在非洲、东欧地区和亚洲水塔周边地区;水合作对地理距离表现为高敏感性,同一流域内国家互动频繁,域外大国在不同时期介入热点流域水合作事务;国家行为体、区域合作关系和国际合作体系三个层次综合影响水合作关系的生成,各层次内部有着复杂的多因素互动,强制型、功利型、规范型和意识形态型水合作是四种主要跨境水合作类型。     

The impacts of information and communication technology,energy consumption,financial development,and economic growth on carbon dioxide emissions in 12 Asian countries

This study aims to investigate the effects of information and communication technology (ICT), energy consumption, economic growth, and financial development on carbon dioxide emissions using 1993–2013 panel data from 12 Asian countries. The study employs a panel unit root test accounting for the presence of cross-sectional dependence and found that Internet usage is stationary and carbon dioxide emissions, energy consumption, gross domestic production (GDP), and financial development are first-difference stationary. The results form Pedroni panel cointegration test confirms that the variables are cointegrated. The results of the cointegration test indicate that the ICT-energy-GDP-carbon dioxide emissions nexus has long-run equilibrium. Both energy consumption and GDP have significant, positive impacts on carbon dioxide emissions; energy consumption and GDP have an effect on carbon dioxide emissions growth. ICT has a significantly negative effect on carbon dioxide emissions; the promotion of ICT becomes one of the important strategies introduced to mitigate carbon dioxide emissions for various countries. Causality results show that energy consumption, GDP, and financial development cause more carbon dioxide emissions. Energy consumption, GDP, and carbon dioxide emissions cause ICT. GDP causes financial development, whereas energy consumption and GDP are interdetermined. The feedback hypothesis exists in the region; those countries need to develop alternative energy to replace fossil fuels. ICT does not threaten the environment and ICT policy can be seen as a part of carbon dioxide emissions reduction policy.     

基于能值的哈萨克斯坦可持续发展评价

运用能值方法分析2014—2018年哈萨克斯坦的资源利用和可持续发展状况。结果表明：哈萨克斯坦的总能值使用量约有89.94%依赖于本土不可更新资源,且直接出口大量粗加工原材料（如石油、矿产、金属等）。该国能值货币比率较低（9.50×10¹¹~1.22×10¹² sej/$）,单位货币所购买能值量较小;能值产出率在16.87~26.11范围内波动,从基于能值的可持续发展指数来看,2014年该指数为0.90,系统发展缺乏可持续性;2015—2018年,该指数高于1,系统发展是可持续的。此外,哈萨克斯坦环境负荷较高,主要由于对本土不可更新资源的开采及利用效率较低。对此,提出了加强可再生资源开发力度、提升资源利用效率、改善对外贸易结构等建议,以期为促进哈萨克斯坦的可持续发展提供科学依据。     

Incorporating stakeholder decision support needs into an integrated regional Earth system model

A new modeling effort exploring the opportunities, constraints, and interactions between mitigation and adaptation at regional scale is utilizing stakeholder engagement in an innovative approach to guide model development and demonstration, including uncertainty characterization, to effectively inform regional decision making. This project, the integrated Regional Earth System Model (iRESM), employs structured stakeholder interactions and literature reviews to identify the most relevant adaptation and mitigation alternatives and decision criteria for each regional application of the framework. The information is used to identify important model capabilities and to provide a focus for numerical experiments. This paper presents the stakeholder research results from the first iRESM pilot region. The pilot region includes the Great Lakes Basin in the Midwest portion of the United States as well as other contiguous states. This geographic area (14 states in total) permits cohesive modeling of hydrologic systems while also providing strong gradients in climate, demography, land cover/land use, and energy supply and demand. The results from the stakeholder research indicate that, for this region, iRESM should prioritize addressing adaptation alternatives in the water resources, urban infrastructure, and agriculture sectors, including water conservation, expanded water quality monitoring, altered reservoir releases, lowered water intakes, urban infrastructure upgrades, increased electric power reserves in urban areas, and land use management/crop selection changes. For mitigation in this region, the stakeholder research implies that iRESM should focus on policies affecting the penetration of renewable energy technologies, and the costs and effectiveness of energy efficiency, bioenergy production, wind energy, and carbon capture and sequestration.     

The concept of sustainable islands: cleaner production, industrial ecology and the network paradigm as preconditions for regional sustainable development

This paper introduces a bottom-up approach towards sustainability which is called the Island approach. The basic assumption of ‘Islands of Sustainability’ is that development towards sustainability can be introduced starting from small sustainable regions. An Island is an area where sustainability is reached locally. Key points to create a sustainable region are communication activities, such as exchange of matter, energy, information, culture, capital and persons within the regional network and with the environment. One of the main theses is that sustainability is linked to the complexity of the regional network. The intensity, the speed and the comprehensive of internal and external interactions, as well as the connectedness of the regional network, have to be changed in order to reach local sustainability.Relations between different approaches such as the Cleaner Production approach, the Industrial Ecology approach and the Island approach are investigated. It is assumed that a combination of these approaches will lead to sustainability, which might not be the case with one approach in isolation. All concepts are based on the new Network Paradigm, which is a reduction of the holistic world view. Cooperation on different hierarchical levels, from the interfirm level up to the interregional level, becomes an important part of behaviour. Networks, such as information networks or matter-flow networks, are introduced and become most important with regard to sustainability.     

From site-level to regional adaptation planning for tropical commodities: cocoa in West Africa

The production of tropical agricultural commodities, such as cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and coffee (Coffea spp.), the countries and communities engaged in it, and the industries dependent on these commodities, are vulnerable to climate change. This is especially so where a large percentage of the global supply is grown in a single geographical region. Fortunately, there is often considerable spatial heterogeneity in the vulnerability to climate change within affected regions, implying that local production losses could be compensated through intensification and expansion of production elsewhere. However, this requires that site-level actions are integrated into a regional approach to climate change adaptation. We discuss here such a regional approach for cocoa in West Africa, where 70 % of global cocoa supply originates. On the basis of a statistical model of relative climatic suitability calibrated on West African cocoa farming areas and average climate projections for the 2030s and 2050s of, respectively, 15 and 19 Global Circulation Models, we divide the region into three adaptation zones: (i) a little affected zone permitting intensification and/or expansion of cocoa farming; (ii) a moderately affected zone requiring diversification and agronomic adjustments of farming practices; and (iii) a severely affected zone with need for progressive crop change. We argue that for tropical agricultural commodities, larger-scale adaptation planning that attempts to balance production trends across countries and regions could help reduce negative impacts of climate change on regional economies and global commodity supplies, despite the institutional challenges that this integration may pose.     

基于超效率SBM的中国省际工业化石能源效率评价及影响因素分析

工业占据我国最大的化石能源终端消耗,评价中国工业化石能源效率对于提高我国工业化石能源效率和实现节能减排目标具有重要意义.本文运用包含非期望产出的超效率SBM模型评价中国30个省(直辖市、自治区)和三大区域(东部、中部、西部)2006—2011年间的工业化石能源效率,运用Tobit回归模型分析工业化石能源效率的影响因素,并给出各区域节能减排潜力.研究结果表明:北京、天津、上海等地区每年的工业化石能源效率指数均远远领先于其他省份;东部区域效率值以明显的优势高于中部和西部区域;西部区域的效率值比较平稳;中部区域内部各地区效率值比东部和西部区域集中.Tobit回归分析结果表明,地区GDP、经济结构、外商直接投资、工业新增固定投资和地理位置位于东部对地区工业化石能源效率有积极影响;产业结构和地理位置位于中部对地区工业化石能源效率有消极影响;地区人均GDP对地区工业化石能源效率没有显著性影响.东部地区油品和天然气节能潜力较大,中部地区煤炭节能潜力较大,西部地区煤炭和天然气节能潜力较大;中部和东部地区是工业CO2减排的重点.基于以上研究本文给出了3点建议提升工业能源效率.