CuCl2-catalyzed PCDD/F formation and congener patterns from phenols

Homologue and isomer patterns of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD) and polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDF) in CuCl2-catalyzed formation were studied in an isothermal flow reactor using a distribution of 20 phenols as measured in municipal waste incinerator (MWI) exhaust gases. A mixture of 20 phenols was synthesized and used as reactants for this study because phenols are known to be key precursors in the formation of PCDD/F. Experiments were conducted at 400 degrees C. The 92% of nitrogen (N2) and 8% of oxygen (O2) were used as a carrier gas. PCDD/F homologue and isomer patterns with dibenzo-p-dioxin (DD) and dibenzofuran (DF) were obtained from a mixture of 20 phenols. DF+PCDF formation was favored over DD+PCDD formation. The major homologue groups formed were non-chlorinated DD and DF, and PCDD/F homologue fraction decreased with the degree of chlorination. PCDD/F homologue and isomer distributions were almost constant. Phenol and lower chlorinated phenols present in high amount played an important role in PCDD/F congener distributions. The results presented here can be used as characteristics or fingerprints for homologue and isomer patterns of PCDD/F formation attribution in CuCl2-catalyzed reaction from phenols.     

Effect of reaction time on PCDD and PCDF formation by de novo synthetic reactions under oxygen deficient and rich atmosphere

The effect of reaction time on formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD) and dibenzofurans (PCDF) was studied under laboratory conditions in the system containing municipal waste incineration fly ash, activated carbon and copper chloride dihydrate at 300 degrees C in 99.999% N2 and N2 + 10% O2 atmosphere. The concentrations of tetra- to octa-chlorinated isomers as well as I-TEQ concentrations of toxic congeners are reported. The mechanism of PCDD and PCDF formation from chlorophenols and chlorinated biphenyls is discussed in the light of the time changes of PCDD/PCDF ratios.     

Correlation of PCDD/PCDF and CO values in a MSW incinerator--indication of memory effects in the high temperature/cooling section

The correlation of PCDD/PCDF levels with the CO emissions in a full-scale municipal waste incinerator was assessed during a four-week measurement effort. PCDD/PCDF concentrations in fly ashes-containing more than 99% of the total PCDD/PCDF burden of the fluidized bed incinerator (FBI)-were measured and compared with the emitted CO concentrations. The CO concentration during the sampling time showed no significant correlation to the PCDD/ PCDF amount in fly ash (R2 = 0.078). However, a comparison of the time integrated CO concentration several hours before sampling lead to a correlation with the PCDD/PCDF burden. Maximum correlation was found for the time integrated CO values of 3 and 4 h before sampling (R2 = 0.467 and R2 = 0.457 respectively). This indicates a memory effect in the high temperature cooling section of several hours. Possible mechanisms leading to the memory effect are discussed. The correlation of PCDD/PCDF with CO concentration demonstrate that the combustion conditions play an important role for PCDD/PCDF formation in FBIs. However the variability in the correlation of CO to PCDD/PCDF levels show that other factors have a significant influence on PCDD/PCDF formation.     

Effects of selected metal oxides on the dechlorination and destruction of PCDD and PCDF

OCDD and OCDF spiked silica/graphite based model fly ash containing various copper compounds and metal oxides were thermally treated under oxygen deficient conditions. All copper compounds tested showed a considerable dechlorination/hydrogenation reaction at 260 °C. After 30 min at 340 °C, less than 1% of the spiked OCDD and OCDF was recovered as T₄CDD/F to OCDD/F. Other compounds tested demonstrated a lower rate of dechlorination compared to the copper compounds. However, all other metal oxides showed a small dechlorination effect at 260 °C, which was considerably increased at 340 °C.

The model fly ash containing the different copper compounds or metal oxides showed comparable PCDD and PCDF isomer patterns after thermal treatment. However, small differences were observed among the different tested compounds. The PCDD and PCDF isomer patterns on the model fly ashes were similar to patterns found during dechlorination experiments on fly ashes from waste incineration processes.

Model fly ash containing Ca(OH)₂ exhibited the highest destruction potential, but a low dechlorination potential. In contrast, model fly ash containing any of the remaining compounds tested, was found to predominantly dechlorinate the spiked OCDD and OCDF.     

Kinetics of carbon degradation and PCDD/PCDF formation on MSWI fly ash

The native carbon oxidation and PolyChloroDibenzo-p-Dioxins and PolyChloroDibenzoFurans, PCDD/F, formation were simultaneously studied at different temperatures (230-350 degrees C) and times (0-1440 min) in order to establish a direct correlation between the disappearance of the reagent and the formation of the products. The kinetic runs were conducted in an experimental set up where conditions were chosen to gain information on the role of fly ash deposits in cold zones of municipal solid waste incinerators in PCDD/F formation reaction. The carbon oxidation measured as the decrease of total organic carbon of fly ash was in agreement with the carbon evolved as sum of CO and CO(2). The carbon mass balance indicated an increase in the efficiency of carbon conversion in CO and CO(2) with temperature. The CO and CO(2) formation was the result of two parallel pseudo first order reactions thus giving significant information about the reaction mechanism. PCDD/F formation as a function of temperature showed that the maximum formation was achieved in a narrow range around 280 degrees C; the time effect at 280 degrees C was a progressive formation increase at least up to 900 min. The PCDF:PCDD molar ratio increased with temperature and time, and the most abundant homologues were HxCDD, HpCDD, OCDD for PCDD, and HxCDF, HpCDF within PCDF. These experimental results supported the hypothesis that the formation mechanism was the de novo synthesis.     

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD) and dibenzofuran (PCDF) isomer patterns from municipal waste combustion: formation mechanism fingerprints

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD) and dibenzofuran (PCDF) byproducts can be formed in combustion systems by a variety of mechanisms. While total PCDD/F emissions and, to a lesser extent, homologue distributions from incinerators have been found to vary widely depending on combustion conditions, PCDD/F isomer distributions do not. Formation mechanisms can be grouped into two general categories: condensation of precursors, such as chlorinated phenols, and formation from particulate carbon, termed de novo synthesis. In addition to these mechanisms, chlorination and dechlorination reactions may affect isomer patterns. In this work, isomer patterns from field and laboratory municipal waste combustion samples are compared with computed thermodynamic distributions and those from the following experimental investigations: both gas-phase and metal-catalyzed condensation of chlorinated phenols, chlorination of dibenzo-p-dioxin and dibenzofuran, and dechlorination of octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and octachlorodibenzofuran. PCDD/F isomer patterns produced by different formation mechanisms in controlled experiments are distinct and robust, largely unaffected by combustion conditions. PCDD isomer patterns from municipal waste combustion are most similar to those produced by CuCl(2)-catalyzed phenol condensation from 10 chlorinated phenols. PCDF isomer patterns are most similar to those produced by chlorination and dechlorination.     

Effects of sulfur dioxide, hydrogen peroxide and sulfuric acid on the de novo synthesis of PCDD/F and PCB under model laboratory conditions

In a laboratory model system consisting of fly ash from municipal waste incinerator, CuCl2 x 2H2O, NaCl and activated carbon in N2 + 10% O2 atmosphere, the de novo synthetic reactions of formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were studied under laboratory conditions in the presence of sulfur dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, and sulfuric acid. It has been found that the formation of PCDD is suppressed by sulfur dioxide more efficiently than the formation of PCDF. A similar effect has also been observed in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. The formation of PCDF is strongly suppressed in the presence of sulfuric acid. On the basis of the experimental results and thermodynamic calculations, the following mechanisms are proposed and discussed: oxidative destruction of PCDD and PCDF oxygen rings, conversion of cupric chloride and possibly also cupric oxide into the non-reactive sulfate, and the Deacon oxychlorination processes catalyzed by cupric chloride.     

The effects of temperature and oxygen content on the PCDD/PCDFs formation in MSW fly ash

In this study, the effects of the temperature, oxygen content in the gas stream and carbon content in ash particles on PCDD/Fs formation on the fly ash surface were investigated. The optimum temperatures for dioxin formation were found at 350 degrees C for boiler ash, 300 degrees C for cyclone ash and 250 degrees C for ESP ash, respectively. Preliminary results indicate that the optimum temperature will decrease as the particle size decreases. When the O2 concentration is varied between 0% and 100%, the optimum oxygen content for PCDD/Fs formation is found to be at 7.5% for cyclone ash, and the PCDD/PCDF ratio increases with the increase of oxygen content. Dioxin formation is observed even for the gas containing no oxygen passed through the fly ash. Hence, other reacted routes that do not need O2 for dioxin formation take place on fly ash. The carbon content in fly ash is varied between 0% and 20% in this study, and the results have indicated that the maximum dioxin formation is to be found at 5%. The precursors are not injected into the fly ash or gas stream in all formation experiments, however, dioxin is still formed in fly ash. Consequently, other chlorinated routes besides Deacon reactions may take place on the fly ash surface.     

A simple kinetic model of PCDD/F formation by de novo synthesis

A simple fixed-bed reactor model is used to describe experimental data about the formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/F) from fly ash carbon. The heterogeneous oxidation of graphite-like carbon is represented by a reaction which is first order in carbon and one half order in oxygen. The same orders of reaction are assumed to be valid for PCDD/F formation, such that the oxidation of fly ash carbon would have three parallel channels leading to COx, PCDD and PCDF. In addition, PCDD/F degradation by oxygen is considered and appropriate rate constants were fitted to simulate the experimental data. The effects of water vapour and particulate copper on PCDD/F formation are included. As a result, an overall kinetic model of PCDD/F formation is obtained which describes most of the experimental data with reasonable accuracy. The main reaction channel, COx formation, needs to be understood more completely, in order to interpret PCDD/F reaction pathways better. The model can be extended to include other chlorinated aromatics and the gas/particle partitioning of the semivolatiles. It provides a basis for the qualitative and quantitative interpretation of fixed-bed and flow reactor results and it is hoped to be applicable to industrial installations like waste incinerators and metal smelters.     

Influence of temperature on PCDD/PCDF desorption from waste incineration flyash under nitrogen

A municipal solid waste incinerator flyash was heated to between 200 and 400 degrees C under nitrogen in a bench-scale, static bed reactor for 4 days soak time. The influence of temperature on the levels of PCDD and PCDF remaining in and desorbed from the ash were investigated using GC-MS/MS. PCDD and especially PCDF formation was seen on the flyash between 225 and 300 degrees C. Large increases in the I-TEQ of the treated ash relative to the increase in its overall PCDD/PCDF content indicated that the formation of 2378-substituted congeners was favoured over that of other substitution patterns. In the absence of a source of gaseous oxygen, formation was mainly attributed to de novo reactions involving solid phase oxygen. Dechlorination of the PCDD/PCDF in flyash became increasingly important above 275 degrees C. Maximum desorption was seen at 325 degrees C, with the equivalent of 35 wt% of the PCDD/F in the original flyash being recovered from the exhaust traps at this temperature. The desorbed species were mainly M(1)CDD/CDDF-T(3)CDD/CDDF resulting from dechlorination of higher chlorinated PCDD/PCDF, with consequently low I-TEQ values.     

PCDD/PCDF formation in the chlor-alkali process—laboratory study and comparison with patterns from contaminated sites

Studies on the formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) during the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution (brine) using graphite or titanium electrodes were carried out at a laboratory scale. High concentrations of PCDFs but no PCDDs were formed in tests using graphite electrodes. With titanium electrodes, PCDFs were only formed when tar pitch was added and mainly originated from the dibenzofuran present in the tar. For the first time, a detailed assessment of the formation of mono- to octachlorinated PCDD/PCDF from tar pitch was investigated. The assessment included of the chlorination steps proved that PCDFs were formed by successive lateral chlorinated from dibenzofuran to MonoCDFs, DiCDFs, and TriCDFs to form the typical known “chlorine pattern” of TetraCDF to OctaCDF with a dominance of 1,2,7,8- and 2,3,7,8-TetraCDFs, 1,2,3,7,8-PentaCDF, and 1,2,3,4,7,8-HexaCDF as marker congeners. The final homologue distributions depended on reaction time and reaction temperature. In addition, electrolysis with non-chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofuran, and biphenyl was carried out. As a result, PCDDs, PCDFs, and PCB were formed at comparable yields. Congener patterns in soil samples from a PCDD/F-contaminated site where chlor-alkali electrolysis had been operated for decades in Japan had identical isomer distribution demonstrating the source and contamination potential and risk of these processes. Therefore, sites where in the past 120 years chlor-alkali electrolysis has been operated or where residues from chlor-alkali production or other chlorine using industries have been disposed should be assessed for their pollution level and exposure relevance. The assessment of total organohalogen content revealed that PCDF is only a small fraction of organohalogens in the contaminated soils. For an appropriate risk assessment, also other chlorinated aromatic compounds such as PCBs or PCNs need to be considered.     

Surface catalyzed formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans during municipal waste incineration

A series of reactions was carried out on different surfaces using carbon and CuCl₂, and KCl or HCl as a Cl-source. The PCDD/PCDF congener distribution was seen to vary to a great extent but the isomer distribution remained fairly constant. It is concluded that thermodynamic properties are largely responsible for the PCDD/PCDF isomer distribution. With pentachlorobenzene Cl₂ elimination, assisted by oxygen, appears to be the major pathway for PCDD/PCDF formation.     

PCDD/F formation from oxy-PAH precursors in waste incinerator flyash

The yield of PCDD/F in relation to the presence of oxygenated PAH in model waste incinerator flyash has been investigated in a fixed bed laboratory scale reactor. Experiments were undertaken by thermal treatment of the model flyash at 250 and 350 °C under a simulated flue gas stream for 2 h. After reaction, the PCDD/F content of the reacted flyash and the PCDD/F released into the exhaust gas, and subsequently trapped by XAD-II resin in a down-stream condensation system were analyzed. The PAHs investigated were, dibenzofuran and benzo[b]naphtho[2,3-d]furan and were spiked onto the model flyash as reactant precursors for PCDD/F formation. The results showed significant formation of furans from both of the PAH investigated, however except from some highly chlorinated dioxin congeners, the formation of dioxins was not so common. Benzonaphthofuran was significantly more reactive than dibenzofuran in PCDD/F formation, in spite of the fact that dibenzofuran is structurally more similar to that of PCDD/F. Thus, there was no clear attribution between the chemical structure of PAH used and the formation of PCDD/F. There were considerable differences between the yields of PCDD/F congeners in the gaseous species and those in the reacted flyash under the same operational conditions. The concentration of PCDD/Fs was reduced at the higher reaction temperature of 350 °C; however, the higher temperature resulted in the majority of the PCDD/F formed on the flyash being released into the gas phase.     

Experimental and statistical determination of indicator parameters for the evaluation of fly ash and boiler ash PCDD/PCDF concentration from municipal solid waste incinerators

On-line detectable indicator parameters in the flue gas of municipal solid waste incinerators (MSWI) such as chlorinated benzenes (PCBz) are well known surrogate compounds for gas-phase PCDD/PCDF concentration. In the here presented work derivation of indicators is broadened to the detection of fly and boiler ash fractions with increased PCDD/PCDF content. Subsequently these fractions could be subject to further treatment such as recirculation in the combustion chamber to destroy their PCDD/PCDF and other organic pollutants' content. Aim of this work was to detect suitable on-line detectable indicator parameters in the gas phase, which are well correlated to PCDD/PCDF concentration in the solid residues. For this, solid residues and gas-phase samples were taken at three MSWI plants in Bavaria. Analysis of the ash content from different plants yielded a broad variation range of PCDD/PCDF concentrations especially after disturbed combustion conditions. Even during normal operation conditions significantly increased PCDD/PCDF concentrations may occur after unanticipated disturbances. Statistical evaluation of gas phase and ash measurements was carried out by means of principal component analysis, uni- and multivariate correlation analysis. Surprisingly, well known indicators for gas-phase PCDD/PCDF concentration such as polychlorinated benzenes and phenols proved to be insufficiently correlated to PCDD/PCDF content of the solid residues. Moreover, no single parameter alone was found appropriate to describe the PCDD/PCDF content of fly and boiler ashes. On the other hand, multivariate fitting of three or four parameters yielded convenient correlation coefficients of at least r=0.8 for every investigated case. Thereby, comprehension of plant operation parameters such as temperatures and air flow alongside concentrations of inorganic compounds in the gas phase (HCl, CO, SO2, NOx) gave the best results. However, the suitable set of parameters suited best for estimation of PCDD/PCDF concentration in solid residues has to be derived anew for each individual plant and type of ash.     

The formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans from carbon model mixtures containing ferrous chloride

The potential to form polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PCDD/F) was investigated in carbon model systems containing ferrous chloride tetrahydrate and a matrix representative of that found in particle emission from the catalytic extraction process (CEP) for wastes. Various types of carbons were used resulting in different PCDD/F yields but, with one exception, similar homologue distributions. Due to the similarity between the turbostratic structure of the carbon in the representative CEP dusts and the carbon blacks used in the model system, experiments were performed using two carbon blacks (termed CBA and CBB). On a mass basis, CBB was more reactive over the temperature range of 275-325 degrees C and reaction times of 20-60 min in the formation of PCDD/F; as well as more adsorptive in terms of the desorption of PCDD/F. On a volume basis, the reactivities and adsorptivities were similar. A maximum in PCDD/F formation occurred at an oxygen concentration of 2% in nitrogen.     

Mechanism of the formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans from chlorophenols in gas phase reactions

The pyrolysis of chlorinated phenates at a temperature of about 280 degrees C results in the formation of definite chlorinated dibenzodioxin (PCDD) congeners [1-3]. It is shown that in gas phase reactions chlorophenols react in the presence of oxygen above 340 degrees C not only to PCDD but also to chlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF). The mechanism of this reaction of chlorophenols to PCDD and PCDF was elucidated. In a first step phenoxyradicals are formed which are capable of forming PCDDs and PCDFs. This is confirmed by the oxygen dependency of the reaction. In an argon atmosphere no dimerization of chlorophenols could be observed at 420 degrees C. By the identification of intermediates and by analyzing the PCDF isomers formed from individual chlorophenols the reaction pathway is elucidated. As intermediates in the formation of PCDFs polychlorinated dihydroxybiphenyls (DOHB) were identified. These are most likely formed by the dimerization of two phenoxy radicals at the hydrogen substituted carbons in ortho-positions under simultaneous movement of the hydrogen atoms to the phenolic oxygen PCDDs are formed in the gas phase via ortho-phenoxyphenols (POP) analogous to the pyrolysis of phenates, but due to the radical mechanism in the first condensation step to POPs not only a chlorine atom is capable for substitution but also the hydrogen atoms. The formation of the DOHBs and their condensation to PCDFs and hydroxylated PCDFs as well as the ratio of PCDD to PCDF formed show a strong dependency on the reaction temperature, the substitution pattern of the chlorophenols and the oxygen concentration.     

Effects of combustion and operating conditions on PCDD/PCDF emissions from power boilers burning salt-laden wood waste

This paper discusses the effects of combustion conditions on PCDD/PCDF emissions from pulp and paper power boilers burning salt-laden wood waste. We found no correlation between PCDD/PCDF emissions and carbon monoxide emissions. A good correlation was, however, observed between PCDD/PCDF emissions and the concentration of stack polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the absence of TDF addition. Thus, poor combustion conditions responsible for the formation of products of incomplete combustion (PICs), such as PAHs and PCDD/PCDF precursors, increase PCDD/PCDF emissions. PAH concentrations increased with higher boiler load and/or low oxygen concentrations at the boiler exit, probably because of lower available residence times and insufficient excess air. Our findings are consistent with the current understanding that high ash carbon content generally favours heterogeneous reactions leading to either de novo synthesis of PCDD/PCDFs or their direct formation from precursors. We also found that, in grate-fired boilers, a linear increase in the grate/lower furnace temperature produces an exponential decrease in PCDD/PCDF emissions. Although the extent of this effect appears to be mill-specific, particularly at low temperatures, the results indicate that increasing the combustion temperature may decrease PCDD/PCDF emissions. It must be noted, however, that there are other variables, such as elevated ESP and stack temperatures, a high hog salt content, the presence of large amounts of PICs and a high Cl/S ratio, which contribute to higher PCDD/PCDFs emissions. Therefore, higher combustion temperatures, by themselves, will not necessarily result in low PCDD/PCDFs emissions.     

Formation and destruction of PCDD/F inside a grate furnace

Formation and destruction of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans PCDD/F during the combustion process was investigated experimentally in a pilot plant. All important process steps like the burnout of the fuel bed on the grate, the burnout of the flue gas inside the combustion chamber, the heat recovery in a boiler as well as influences of the fuel composition are described in detail.

High concentrations especially of PCDF are formed during the burnout of the fuel bed. The formation reaction is mainly influenced by the fuel composition and the burnout characteristic of the fuel bed. Fuels with low chlorine and low metal content (Cu) result only in negligible concentrations of PCDD/F.

Under stable combustion conditions characterized by an excellent flue gas burnout PCDD/F will almost be completely destroyed already inside the combustion chamber. “Cold strands” of unburned flue gas (high CO concentrations) caused by disturbed combustion conditions will result in high concentrations of PCDD and especially of PCDF in the raw gas.

A second place of PCDD/F formation is the well-known boiler section. Here fly ash deposits containing residual carbon (mainly soot particles) are the source for the formation reaction. Under stationary effective combustion conditions, they are dominant for PCDD/F concentrations in the raw gas over a very long period of time.

Stationary efficient flue gas burnout (especially soot) together with effective boiler cleaning will guaranty low concentrations of PCDD/F in the flue gas in front of the flue gas cleaning system.     

PCDD/F formation from oxy-PAH precursors in waste incinerator flyash

The yield of PCDD/F in relation to the presence of oxygenated PAH in model waste incinerator flyash has been investigated in a fixed bed laboratory scale reactor. Experiments were undertaken by thermal treatment of the model flyash at 250 and 350 °C under a simulated flue gas stream for 2 h. After reaction, the PCDD/F content of the reacted flyash and the PCDD/F released into the exhaust gas, and subsequently trapped by XAD-II resin in a down-stream condensation system were analyzed. The PAHs investigated were, dibenzofuran and benzo[b]naphtho[2,3-d]furan and were spiked onto the model flyash as reactant precursors for PCDD/F formation. The results showed significant formation of furans from both of the PAH investigated, however except from some highly chlorinated dioxin congeners, the formation of dioxins was not so common. Benzonaphthofuran was significantly more reactive than dibenzofuran in PCDD/F formation, in spite of the fact that dibenzofuran is structurally more similar to that of PCDD/F. Thus, there was no clear attribution between the chemical structure of PAH used and the formation of PCDD/F. There were considerable differences between the yields of PCDD/F congeners in the gaseous species and those in the reacted flyash under the same operational conditions. The concentration of PCDD/Fs was reduced at the higher reaction temperature of 350 °C; however, the higher temperature resulted in the majority of the PCDD/F formed on the flyash being released into the gas phase.     

Formation of PCDD/Fs from oxidation of 2-monochlorophenol over an Fe2O3/silica surface

The role of iron in surface-mediated formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) from 2-chlorophenol (2-MCP) was investigated over the temperature range of 200-550 °C under oxidative conditions. In order to compare and contrast with previous work on copper and ferric oxide-mediated pyrolysis of 2-MCP, identical reaction conditions were maintained (50 ppm 2-MCP, model fly-ash particles containing 5% Fe₂O₃ on silica). Observed products included dibenzo-p-dioxin (DD), 1-monochlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (1-MCDD), dibenzofuran (DF), 4,6-dichlorodibenzofuran (4,6-DCDF), 2,4- and 2,6-dichlorophenol, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, quinone, catechol, chloro-o-quinone, chlorocatechol and polychlorinated benzenes. Yields of DD and 1-MCDD were 2 and 5 times higher than under pyolysis conditions, respectively. Although 4,6-DCDF was the major PCDD/F product formed with a yield that was 2.5× greater than under pyrolysis, the yield of non-chlorinated DF, which was the dominant PCDD/F product under pyrolysis, decreased by a factor of 3. Furthermore, the ∼2× higher yield of PCDDs under oxidative conditions resulted in a PCDD to PCDF ratio of 0.75 compared to a relatively low ratio of 0.39 previously observed under pyrolytic conditions.