THE EFFECT OF SOME BASIC STATISTICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES ON WATER POLLUTION CONTROL1

ABSTRACT: The hypothesis of this paper is that the frequently used regulatory practice which employs point estimates in water pollution control objectives, in combination with monitoring at infrequent intervals, is an inadequate scientific procedure for the measurement and control of pollution. The first part of this paper outlines the relevant sampling theory which applies to the measurement of effluent from industrial plants and describes the possible errors in sampling practice which currently affect the interpretation and enforcement of environmental standards. In the second part of the paper, the authors describe briefly the environmental significance of biological damage functions. In the final part of the paper, the authors recommend that existing pollution control regulations be restructured to be more efficient and effective in the protection of both corporate and social interests. By adopting two different approaches to regulation depending upon the nature of the appropriate damage functions and critical fish species, it is possible to reduce significantly the waste of resources.     

THE COSTS OF CONFLICTING ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY: A CASE STUDY IN MILWAUKEE1

ABSTRACT: The history of the Milwaukee water pollution abatement program is examined as a case study to investigate the costs of conflicting environmental policy. The recent U.S. Supreme Court decision concerning the Milwaukee case is described as a milestone in U.S. water pollution abatement policy which will help preclude the type of environmental policy conflict which has been found to be so costly to Milwaukee. The implications to U.S. water pollution abatement policy of the 13-year history of conflict in Milwaukee are presented.     

IRRIGATOR INVOLVEMENT IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AGRICULTURAL NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAMS1

ABSTRACT: Recently, Congress designated irrigated agriculture under the “nonpoint source” category, covered by Section 208 of P.L. 92-500 and involves the use of “best management practices.” Generally, the most appropriate solutions for pollution abatement from irrigated agriculture involve the delivery and use of water rather than the treatment of irrigation return flows. 1. Technological alternatives should be utilized that are sensitive to local conditions and acceptable to the farmers. 2. Informational and educational programs to assist farm operators individually and collectively must be instituted prior to the start of the project; imaginatively conceived, and continuously modified and upgraded if motivation for change is to be encouraged. 3. Technical assistance personnel should be given short courses in skills needed for working effectively with irrigators. 4. Communication techniques used for working with farmers as individuals and groups should be designed into the implementation program and evaluated. 5. Credibility and trustworthiness of Federal and state agencies in the eyes of the irrigators provide the important final ingredient in effectively implementing change and reducing nonpoint source pollution from irrigated agriculture.     

ASSESSING THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF GROUND WATER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY DECISIONS1

ABSTRACT: The full range of environmental and economic services of ground water need to be accounted for in policy decisions. Non-recognition of these services imputes a lower value for the ground water resource in establishing policies. We describe a conceptual framework for identifying and measuring the economic value of groundwater. The valuation framework links changes in physical characteristics of ground water to services provided by ground water and the economic effects of changes in ground water services. In addition to the framework, we develop a general protocol to follow for assessing the benefits of ground water policies. Application of the protocol will aid in establishing structure and consistency across policy assessments and improve the accuracy and completeness of benefit estimates, avoid double-counting problems, and eliminate duplication of ground water valuation efforts.     

A COMPARISON OF METHODS AND INSTRUMENTATION OF BIOLOGICAL EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS1

ABSTRACT: Rapid biological information systems using aquatic organisms to monitor water and waste water quality have only recently begun to develop technologically for practical on-site applications. One approach which has been demonstrating its feasibility recently monitors the ventilatory behavior of fish to assess, for example, the quality of drinking water supplies and industrial waste water discharges. A comparison of the basic strategies of the various biological monitoring systems making use of this concept is presented. In addition, the applications and potential utilization of these systems are discussed.     

THE NEED FOR A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH IN THE MANAGEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES1

ABSTRACT Environmental resources can be managed properly only by adopting a comprehensive approach. The whole environment must be considered as a single system, and prior to any action, all types of environmental impacts caused by it should be studied in detail. This paper underlines the close relationship between different environmental problems, analyzes existing management patterns, and proposes new alternatives whenever applicable. The different constraints, which have to be considered in the decision-making process while developing a plan, are also discussed. It is concluded that efforts neglecting the interaction among different aspects of the environment do not upgrade the quality of water, air, and land to any appreciable degree.     

LAND USE FUNCTION IN WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT1

ABSTRACT. The Nation has entered a new era of water quality management in which land use policy and regulation must assume an increasingly important role. The benefits of tertiary and advanced waste treatment may be offset by contradictory land use and pollution from land runoff. Unless land use planning and controls are included in water quality management, land-imposed constraints on water quality can be anticipated. Pollution from major types of land runoff are reviewed with respect to sources, effects, and control procedures. Emphasis is given to land use practices and controls. The crucial issue with regard to the latter is lack of land use policies at federal, state, and local levels. State legislation establishing guidelines and minimum standards for land use regulation by local government is required. The dependency of water quality on land use points to the fallacy of attempting to provide for comprehensive water pollution control outside the context of comprehensive land-water resource planning and management.     

CHANGES IN WATER POLICY IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA1

ABSTRACT: Ideology has predisposed the People's Republic of China against the use of prices to allocate water. Prolonged drought in north China has made the Chinese more aware of their unfavorable water resource inventory and the expense of expanding supply. Therefore, as part of the economic liberalization commenced since the death of Mao Zedong, China has started to make more active use of pricing to regulate demand and reduce the need for supply expansion.     

THE USE OF LANDSAT IMAGERY IN GROUND WATER EXPLORATION1

ABSTRACT: Water supplies in Arizona are becoming increasingly limited because municipal, industrial, and agricultural consumption depletes ground water reserves by three million acre-feet annually. Additional demands are being created by electric power generation, particularly in northeastern Arizona where ground water pumpage is expected to escalate by sixfold during the next 10 years. The results of a study to determine the ease and feasibility of using satellite imagery as a tool in exploring for new sources of ground water are reported. Lineaments detected on Landsat images of two sites were mapped and correlated with well data in the two study areas by means of well centered grid model. The correlations developed between lineament density and water well data in the two study sites support the hypothesis that a relationship exists between regional geologic structure and the presence of ground water.     

THE ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN WATER USE IN THE TUCSON BASIN,ARIZONA1

ABSTRACT: The ground water in the Tucson basin is being drawn faster than it is replenished by nature. The water table is falling, giving rise to several conflicts between water users in the basin. At present, several lawsuits are in progress, including an action by the Papago Tribe against some of the major water users in the basin. Largely because of these difficulties, the State Legislature has established a commission to make proposals for the reform of Arizona's ground water law. The pattern of water use in the basin will undoubtedly be changed by the outcome of the present litigation and the coming reform of Arizona's ground water law. This paper describes how water use in the basin might be affected by changes in the availability of water and gives an account of the effects that these changes in water use could have on the region's economy. The paper concludes that the water problems of the Tucson basin will have little effect on the region at large and that these problems are simply a matter for the Indians and the other water users in the basin to sort out amongst themselves.     

BIOLOGICAL MONITORING OF BLUEGILL ACTIVITY1

ABSTRACT: Bluegills were exposed for one hour to 0.2 or 2.3 mg/liter water soluble fraction (WSF) of JP-4 in a testing chamber designed to contain individual fish. A strain gage paddle was used to monitor activity. Whole body movement of individual fish did not change appreciably during exposure to either 0.2 or 2.3 mg/liter WSF-JP-4. Strength of pectoral fin movement, accounting for the majority of the fish behavior, increased in six of ten individuals exposed to 2.3 mg/liter WSF-JP-4. Pectoral fanning may be a useful parameter to indirectly assess water quality.     

EFFECT OF THE PAPER INDUSTRY ON WATER QUALITY OF THE LOWER FOX RIVER1

ABSTRACT: The Lower Fox River, Wisconsin, hosts the densest concentration of paper mills in the US., with 18 located along a 4Gde stretch between Lake Winnebago and Green Bay, Lake Michigan. Some of these companies use only primary, others also secondary, waste treatment techniques. Comparison of the quantities of wastes discharged with the legal limits indicates that all plants discharge only 40-50 percent or less of the allowable suspended solids; most discharge < 50 percent of the allowable BOD. This is equal or better than the performance of paper companies elsewhere in the state. Reductions in pollutant discharges have corresponded to improved water quality, though too much BOD is still discharged to be adequately assimilated by the Fox River. The relatively low current level of discharges means permit levels would have to be drastically cut to make any significant impact on water quality. Only a few companies might be seriously affected by such changes. Flow and temperature related permits would likely be more effective, but more difficult to comply with for the industry. Toxic substances are also a potential problem, particularly chlororganic compounds that can form in situ from the chlorine frequently used for pulp bleaching.     

POLICY IMPACTS ON AGRICULTURAL IRRIGATION ELECTRICITY DEMAND IN THE COLUMBIA BASIN1

ABSTRACT: Accurately estimating the price elasticity of demand for irrigation electricity is important to major electricity suppliers such as the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) of the Pacific Northwest. The BPA has a revenue maximization objective, and the elasticity of demand is central to its rate setting process. Several studies have attempted to estimate demand for irrigation electricity, but none has explicitly included federal agricultural policy and program variables. Tins paper discusses how agricultural programs may influence farmers irrigation decisions and thus their demand for irrigation electricity. It suggests that existing programs serve to make farmers more responsive to electricity rate increases than would otherwise be the case. Thus, studies that fail to include them may underestimate the responsiveness of farmers to electricity rate increases.     

CONSUMPTIVE USE OF STREAMFLOW INCREASES IN THE COLORADO RIVER BASIN1

ABSTRACT: This study examined the disposition of streamflow increases that could be created by vegetation management on forest land along the upper reaches of the Colorado River. A network optimization model was used to simulate water flow, storage, consumptive use, and loss within the entire Colorado River Basin with and without the flow increases, according to various scenarios incorporating both current and future consumptive use levels as well as existing and potential institutional constraints. Results indicate that very little of the flow increases would be consumptively used at current use levels, or even at future use levels, if water allocation institutions remain unchanged. Given future use levels and economically based water allocation institutions, up to one-half of the flow increases could be consumptively used. The timing of streamflow increases, and the institutional constraints on water allocation, often limit the potential for consumptive use of flow increases.     

BSENEFICIAL USE POTENTIAL OF DRY WEATHER FLOW IN THE LAS VEGAS VALLEY,NEVADA1

ABSTRACT: Historically ephemeral washes in the Las Vegas Valley have become perennial streams in the urbanized area, and the primary source of these perennial flows appears to be the overirrigation of ornamental landscaping and turf. Overirrigation produces direct runoff to the washes via the streets and results in high ground water levels in some areas. Elevated ground water levels result in discharge to the washes because of changes in the natural balance of the hydrologic system and construction site and foundation dewatering. In recognition of the resource potential of these flows within the Las Vegas Valley, of the potential for dry weather flows to convey pollutants from the Valley to Lake Mead, and of the need to characterize dry weather flows under the stormwater discharge permit program, the quantity and quality of dry weather flow in Flamingo Wash was investigated during the period September 1990 through May 1993. This paper focuses on the resource potential of the flow (quantity and quality) as it relates to the interception and use of this water within the Valley. Economic and legal issues associated with the interception and use of this resource are not considered here.     

ORGANIZATIONAL EVALUATION OF INDUSTRIAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL IN THE NEW YORK REGION1

ABSTRACT: Non-technological factors related to the behavior and characteristics of organizations involved in pollution control are explored here as to their importance as determinants or indicators of the level of pollution control effectiveness. Methods of evaluating the existing level of effectiveness are developed and tested using the response of a selected set of industrial establishments to state water pollution abatement action in the New York Region from 1966 to 1971. The compliance of 209 manufacturing establishments to state abatement orders in the New York Region is evaluated with respect to selected organizational and industrial characteristics and characteristics of the firms'socioeconomic environment. The influence of state policies arid programs is also discussed. It was found that the degree of compliance to state abatement action by industry in the Region is positively related to organization size, the extent of waste generation, the wealth and size of the town in which the firm is located, and the availability of waste treatment facilities in the town. The age of the firm was not related to compliance. The structure of state abatement scheduling also influences the degree of compliance. The methods of analysis used here provide a basis for a comprehensive analysis of the effectiveness of pollution control as an alternative to the case by case approach that is currently being used.     

FISH EMBRYOS: PRACTICAL INDICATORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OF SIGNWICANCE TO FISHERIES1

ABSTRACT: Cyto-embryological analyses of fish eggs collected in nature can be a more sensitive indicator of environmental pollution than more typical assays conducted on artificially-spawned eggs. This is because uncertainties associated with artificial spawning and rearing are dispensed with, as well as because of the sensitivity of some cellular and subcellular analyses. At the same time, such measures can provide information on interannual differences in egg viability of importance in elucidating great, unexplained variability in fisheries recruitment. Extensive experience with fish embryos from ocean plankton has led to the choice of a particularly useful, practical suite of observations for different developmental stages. This includes measures of embryo mortality, mutagenicity, teratogenicity, abnormal cell differentiation, and development rate. Atlantic mackerel egg mortality has been determined to be greater in the surface waters of the New York Bight apex and along the New Jersey coast than in less polluted portions of the Bight. Chromosome abnormality of mid-stage embryos was also greater in more impacted areas of the same water mass, as well as in the somatic cells of adult mackerel and winter flounder, and in juvenile and adult windowpane flounder caught in more impacted areas. Mortality and abnormality of the mackerel embryos showed statistical associations with toxic hydrocarbons as measured in plankton, and with heavy metals as measured in sea surface waters. The sensitivity, practicality, and relevance of the cytoembryological studies to population dynamics of resource species make this an important means of monitoring environmental quality.     

ENHANCING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN DEFINING WATER RESOURCE POLICY1

ABSTRACT: Federal regulations require agencies administering water resource projects to inform and educate citizens so that they will understand and participate effectively in local programs. Government officials and public involvement specialists have proposed positive outcomes which should derive from agency educational efforts. Eleven interdependent educational goals are identified in this study such that achievement of each goal improves the likelihood of achieving others. Evaluations indicate that educational programs are inadequate and goals are not attained fully. The incorporation of mechanisms employed by professional educators is a potential remedy. Educational and social psychology contain an abundance of effective educational devices and methodologies appropriate for use in informal adult educational programs. An individualized educational program is recommended to meet the needs of a heterogeneous adult audience.     

FREQUENCY-DURATION ANALYSIS OF DISSOLVED-OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS IN TWO SOUTHWESTERN WISCONSIN STREAMS1

ABSTRACT: Historically, dissolved-oxygen (DO) data have been collected in the same manner as other water-quality constituents, typically at infrequent intervals as a grab sample or an instantaneous meter reading. Recent years have seen an increase in continuous water-quality monitoring with electronic dataloggers. This new technique requires new approaches in the statistical analysis of the continuous record. This paper presents an application of frequency-duration analysis to the continuous DO records of a cold and a warm water stream in rural southwestern Wisconsin. This method offers a quick, concise way to summarize large time-series data bases in an easily interpretable manner. Even though the two streams had similar mean DO concentrations, frequency-duration analyses showed distinct differences in their DO-concentration regime. This type of analysis also may be useful in relating DO concentrations to biological effects and in predicting low DO occurrences.