Gene flow matters in switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), a potential widespread biofuel feedstock

There currently exists a large push for the use, improvement, and expansion via landscape modification of dedicated biofuel crops (feedstocks) in the United States and in many parts of the world. Ecological concerns have been voiced because many biofuel feedstocks exhibit characteristics associated with invasiveness, and due to potential negative consequences of agronomic genes in native wild populations. Seed purity concerns for biofuel feedstock cultivars whose seeds would be harvested in agronomic fields also exist from the agribusiness sector. The common thread underlying these concerns, which have regulatory implications, is gene flow; thus detailed knowledge of gene flow in biofuel crop plants is important in the formulation of environmental risk management plans. Here, we synthesize the current state of knowledge of gene flow in an exemplary biofuel crop, switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), which is native to eastern North America and is currently experiencing conventional and technological advances in biomass yields and ethanol production. Surprisingly little is known regarding aspects of switchgrass pollen flow and seed dispersal, and whether native populations of conspecific or congeneric relatives will readily cross with current agronomic switchgrass cultivars. We pose that filling these important gaps will be required to confront the sustainability challenges of widespread planting of biofuel feedstocks.     

Die Wirkung von Photooxidantien auf Sommerweizen (Triticum aestivum L. Star)

The effect of short-time fumigation with the peroxidic photooxidants ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) on the gas exchange of wheat leaves was investigated. Two types of experiments are to be distinguished:

1. Fumigation is carried out at atmospheric CO₂ partial pressure (350 μbar) and the assimilation and transpiration rates are followed simultaneously.
2. The alteration of CO₂-response curves by fumigation is determined; from this, characteristic photosynthetic parameters can be calculated.

With this method, statements about the reaction of both photosynthesis as a whole and specific reaction sites within the most important photosynthetic processes are possible. Ozone in concentrations of 260–280 ppb causes a primary perturbation of the photosynthetic apparatus, whereby the carboxylation rate is affected to nearly the same extent as the electron-transport rate.PAN (120 ppb) causes a reduction in the assimilation rate, primarily due to the closing of the stomata. H₂O₂ affects the gas exchange only in concentrations of above 1 ppm, whereby the reduction of the assimilation rate represents an almost pure stomatal effect. All three fumigants cause an increase in the respiration rate, which may point to an activation of detoxification and repair mechanisms.     

Shell Disease of Brown Shrimp, Crangon crangon (L.), and Other Marine Crustacea from The Solway Firth

The Crangon crangon (L.) population of the Solway Firth displays a mean incidence of shell disease of 13.2%, which is some 1.5 times more than any other crustacean species in this area. The condition is characterized by superficial pitting and cracking of the carapace leading to the formation of blackened erosions which are commoner in larger individuals and, in all, are lost at the moult. Visually identical damage appears within 4-5 days of mechanical abrasion of the exoskeleton, but is inhibited if the abraded animals are maintained in an antibiotic medium.

Disease incidence fluctuates throughout the year with minima in March and August and maxima during the winter months. Apparently the activity of the local commercial shrimp fishery is the primary cause of the high incidence of shell disease amongst these shrimp. Mechanical damage to the exoskeleton, incurred as a result of abrasion by fishing instruments, facilitates penetration of the epicuticle by chitinoclastic bacteria which then induce chitinolysis of the underlying calcified exoskeletal layers. The condition does not seem to cause a significant mortality of the shrimp population nor does it affect the value of the commercial catch.     

Multifarious activities of gut epithelium in an appendicularian (Oikopleura dioica: Tunicata)

The functions of the various gut regions of Oikopleura dioica (oesophagus, left and right gastric lobes, vertical intestine, mid-intestine and rectum) were investigated by means of histochemical, histoenzymatic and immunohistochemical techniques at light and electron microscopes. Ciliary food progression is evidenced by the presence of ATPases on cilia, along the entire gut, with the exception of the cardiac valve, a passive device controlling food direction. Absorptive processes (alkaline phosphatase), active transport (ATPases) and nitrogen excretion (D-amino acid oxidase) occur along the entire gut, in both ciliated microvillar and globular cells. The latter, typical of the left gastric lobe and rectum, are also involved in endocytotic processes (exogenous peroxidase as tracer) and intracellular digestion (!-amylase, aminopeptidase M, acid phosphatase, 5'-nucleotidase, non-specific esterase). The giant cells of the gastric band participate in extracellular digestion; they contain secretory granules positive to various hydrolytic enzymes, the activity of which is also recognisable in faecal pellets inside the intestinal lumen. Lipid storage occurs mainly in the right gastric lobe and vertical intestine, whereas protein storage takes place in the rectal granular cells. Epithelial transport and possible osmoregulation occur along the entire gut, especially at the level of diffuse baso-lateral interdigitations, which increase the plasmalemma surface enormously, are often associated with mitochondria and possess numerous ATPase pumps. Data extend previous histological observations and hypotheses on the physiological role of the various gut regions. The remarkable and specific location of enzymatic activities and nutrient storage are in agreement with the high capacity of O. dioica to process a great quantity of food very rapidly and efficiently.     

Sites of bioluminescence in the appendicularians Oikopleura dioica and O. labradoriensis (Urochordata: Larvacea)

Although bioluminescence is known in larvacean tunicates, its origin has not been reported. Two species, Oikopleura dioica and O. labradoriensis, from the northeastern Pacific Ocean, were examined during 1979–1982 to determine the sites of luminescence. An appendicularian lives within a secreted, mucous house, and its body is tightly invested by a house rudiment. Mechanical stimulation elicited multiple, summated blue-green flashes from free individuals invested by house rudiments and from empty houses that were virtually free of contamination by exogenous luminescent bacteria or dinoflagellates. Direct microscopic observations showed that the light is produced by clusters of 1 to 2 m fluorescent granules that form intricate, species-specific patterns of inclusions in the house rudiment. These granular inclusions are probably present in the expanded house, where they account for the multiple, point-sources of light observed in flashing houses. Neither fluorescence nor luminescence were observed in any other parts of the house rudiments, expanded houses, or free appendicularians (including the oral glands, which were previously suspected of producing bioluminescent secretions).     

Genetic diversity and genetic structure in the brown alga Halidrys dioica (Fucales: Cystoseiraceae) in Southern California

Genetic diversity and genetic structure in a population of the brown seaweed Halidrys dioica Gardner were evaluated in five sites in southern California, USA, in 1991, using isozyme electrophoresis. H. dioica is relatively long-lived and has an outcrossing mating system and floating reproductive fronds with the potential for longdistance gamete dispersal. Because these characteristics are hypothetically important in determining genetic diversity and structure, we predicted that genetic diversity would be high and genetic structure would be exhibited only at relatively large geographic scales in H. dioica populations. The data were consistent with the prediction: genetic diversity (% polymorphic loci, no. of alleles/locus, average expected heterozygosity) was high compared to that of other seaweed species. Genetic structure (Wright's F statistics, Nei's genetic distance, point-pattern analysis of alleles) was low within and among distinct rocky reefs over 4 km of coast but high in subpopulations separated by 90 km. Life-history characteristics may be useful predictors of genetic diversity and structure in seaweed populations, but information on selection regimes, long-distance dispersal, and the extent of clonal propagation, for example, are critically lacking.     

不同植物叶片臭氧伤害症状及其生理响应机制的差异

快速发展的城市化和工业化引起近地层臭氧浓度不断升高,对城市绿化植物具有很大的毒性伤害。选择城市常见的景观植物万寿菊、矮牵牛及圆叶牵牛为供试植物,利用开顶式气室,研究了不同植物臭氧伤害症状及其生理响应机制的差异。结果表明:1)臭氧暴露后,供试植物叶片均出现了不同程度的臭氧伤害,或叶脉间黄化(万寿菊和矮牵牛),或出现白色斑点(圆叶牵牛),且随臭氧浓度升高其黄化程度加剧,白色斑点亦扩张形成白色斑块,最终叶片从症状形成的地方开始干枯。2)臭氧暴露加剧了供试植物叶片膜脂过氧化程度,但对可溶性蛋白含量没有显著影响,说明植物生长后期臭氧暴露并没有造成蛋白质退化进而引起植物抗臭氧胁迫能力的下降。3)臭氧暴露后万寿菊叶片茉莉酸含量降低,矮牵牛叶片水杨酸含量显著升高,而圆叶牵牛既有水杨酸含量的升高又有茉莉酸含量的降低,说明不同植物对臭氧伤害的激素响应是不一致的,茉莉酸保护能力减弱引起了臭氧对万寿菊叶片伤害,水杨酸过度累积造成了矮牵牛叶片的臭氧直接伤害,而圆叶牵牛的臭氧伤害则是2种原因都可能存在。因此,在大气臭氧浓度尚不能有效控制的情况下,明确不同植物臭氧伤害形成的激素响应,以采取针对性保护措施维持其最大生态效益。     

Temperature acclimation of upper and lower thermal limits and freeze resistance in the nonindigenous brown mussel, Perna perna (L.), from the Gulf of Mexico

Acute and chronic upper and lower thermal limits and freeze resistance were investigated in the nonindigenous brown mussel, Perna perna, from the Texas Gulf of Mexico coast in order to assess its potential distribution in North American coastal waters. This species' long-term, incipient lower and upper thermal limits were 7.5°C and 30°C, congruent with the seasonal ambient water temperature range of 10-30°C reported for other populations worldwide. Effects of temperature acclimation and individual size on survival time were most pronounced on chronic exposures to lethal temperatures approaching incipient lower or upper thermal limits. When exposed to temperature increasing at 0.1°C min^-1, the acute upper lethal limit was 44°C regardless of acclimation temperature or individual size. P. perna had a limited freeze resistance, being intolerant of emersion at -2.5°C. This species' narrow incipient thermal limits, limited capacity for temperature acclimation and poor freeze resistance may account for its restriction to subtidal and lower eulittoral zones of cooler subtropical rocky shores. Near extinction of P. perna from Texas Gulf of Mexico waters occurred in the summer of 1997 when mean surface-water temperatures approached its incipient upper limit of 30°C.     

Foraging behavior of juvenile Carcinus maenas (L.) and Cancer pagurus L.

Information concerning the way juvenile crabs choose their diet from a variety of prey types can be useful for a better understanding of community dynamics, as well as for the adequate management of natural resources. Prey size and species selection by juvenile Carcinus maenas (15-35 mm carapace width, CW) and Cancer pagurus (20-40 mm CW) feeding on four bivalves of contrasting shell morphology were investigated. When offered a wide size range of Mytilus edulis, Ostrea edulis, Crassostrea gigas, and Cerastoderma edule presented individually, crabs generally showed evidence of size-selective predation. Cancer pagurus selected larger mussels relative to the size of their chelae (relative prey size, RPS) than did Carcinus maenas of similar and even larger carapace width. However, the RPS of selected O. edulis and Cerastoderma edule were similar for all crabs, suggesting that certain prey features constitute effective barriers even to the powerful chelae of Cancer pagurus. When offered a wide size range of mussels and oysters simultaneously, all crabs consistently selected mussels. When offered O. edulis and Crassostrea gigas, crabs consumed both these oyster species in similar numbers. Carcinus maenas consumed similar numbers of mussels and cockles; Cancer pagurus, however, showed no preference for either prey in the smaller size classes but selected more mussels than cockles as prey increased in size. Although previous studies report that adult Carcinus maenas select prey species according to their profitability (amount of food ingested per unit of handling time, milligrams per second), consumption rates of the size classes of prey selected by juvenile shore crabs did not always parallel prey value. Although variations in crab strength can account for many of the differences between the foraging strategy of juvenile and adult C. maenas, our results suggest that juvenile crabs are less species selective than adults as a result of the restrictions imposed on small individuals that have limited access to larger prey.     

Influence of temperature changes on oxygen uptake and ammonia and phosphate excretion,in relation to body size and weight,in Oikopleura dioica (Appendicularia)

The relationship between the rates of oxygen consumption, ammonia and phosphate excretion of a pelagic tunicate, the larvacean Oikopleura dioica Fol, 1872 were assessed as a function of size, dry weight and ash-free dry weight at 15°, 20° and 24°C. O. dioica has higher respiration and excretion rates than copepods of similar weight, but the weight exponent of the allometric power function: Y=aX ^b is similar to that of other poikilotherms. Temperatures above 20°C have a depressing effect on respiration and ammonia excretion. 90% of the variance in metabolic rates is explainable by body mass and temperatures Q₁₀ values for oxygen consumption, ammonia and phosphate excretion, respectively, are 2.45, 1.86 and 1.75 between 15° and 20°C, and 3.75, 2.90 and 3.60 between 20° and 24°C. Metabolic quotients (O:N, O:P, N:P) indicate a protein-oriented diet. The results of this study suggest weak metabolic regulation in O. dioica, an energetic strategy which allows an immediate response to favourable changes in feeding conditions.     

Cadmium accumulation by green algae Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kutz. (Chlorophyta) in presence of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (L.)

Accumulation of metals by aquatic organisms is mostly affected by other biological components in environments. In this study, cadmium (Cd) accumulation in green algae, Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kutz., exposed to 0.1 and 1.0 mg L^?1 of Cd for 15 and 30 days was examined in laboratory conditions in the presence of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (L.). The green algae C. glomerata accumulated Cd concentrations as 690 ± 70 and 3430 ± 470 mg kg^?1 on day 15, and 1130 ± 180 and 6830 ± 1540 mg kg^?1 on day 30. There were significant increases (p < 0.05) in metal accumulation by green algae as the exposure time and metal concentration increased. The results also indicated that the presence of Nile tilapia in the medium led to a significant Cd accumulation in the green algae compared to control (p < 0.05).     

Die Ektoplasmahülle von Heterostegina depressa (Foraminifera:Nummulitidae)

The structure of the rigid ectoplasm sheath was studied in living individuals of the large foraminifer Heterostegina depressa d'Orbigny 1826 (Nummulitidae). H. depressa is able to form pseudopods, which emerge from the marginal cord within a few minutes. Normally, however, the living test is entirely covered by a rigid hyalin elastic sheath, which is fixed to the substrate by terminally branched processes. In older individuals, the sheath is often incomplete and restricted to the marginal cord only. Probably, the sheath is secreted by the ectoplasm which fills the canal system of the chamber walls and the marginal cord, or it consists of transformed ectoplasm; we call it “Ektoplasmahülle”, and the processes radiating to all sides, “Ruhepseudopodien”. H. depressa is able to move while inside the elastic sheath by means of pseudopods which penetrate the sheath and attach themselves to the substrate out-side. In the same manner, H. depressa leaves a complete sheath by disrupting it through the tractive powers of the pseudopods. The procedure of breaking the sheath is described. Locomotion when leaving the sheath is performed in a zigzag manner (alternating action of several pseudopods). The sheath counteracts transportation by water movement and protects chamber formation (which takes place inside the sheath). Due to its symbiotic unicellular algae, H. depressa does not need to collect food particles; hence locomotion seems unneccssary. The formation of a rigid ectoplasm sheath may be connected with H. depressa's sessile mode of life.     

Physiological responses of the calcifying rhodophyte, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Corallina officinalis</Emphasis> (L.), to future CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> levels

Future atmospheric CO₂ levels will most likely have complex consequences for marine organisms, particulary photosynthetic calcifying organisms. Corallina officinalis L. is an erect calcifying macroalga found in the inter- and subtidal regions of temperate rocky coastlines and provides important substrate and refugia for marine meiofauna. The main goal of the current study was to determine the physiological responses of C. officinalis to increased CO₂ concentrations expected to occur within the next century and beyond. Our results show that growth and production of inorganic material decreased under high CO₂ levels, while carbonic anhydrase activity was stimulated and negatively correlated to algal inorganic content. Photosynthetic efficiency based on oxygen evolution was also negatively affected by increased CO₂. The results of this study indicate that C. officinalis may become less competitive under future CO₂ levels, which could result in structural changes in future temperate intertidal communities.     

(N-[2-(2-氧-1-咪唑烷基)乙基]-N '-苯基脲(EDU)对环境臭氧胁迫下的水稻和小麦生长的影响

通过对作物定期喷施不同浓度(0、150、300和450 mg·L-1)的N-[2-(2-氧-1-咪唑烷基)乙基]-N'-苯基脲(ethy lenediurea,EDU)溶液,研究EDU对环境O3胁迫下水稻“粤晶丝苗2号”(Oryza sativa L.Yuejingsi 2)和小麦“北农9549”(Triticum a...     

Larvicidal activity of neem and karanja oil cakes against mosquito vectors, Culex quinquefasciatus (say), Aedes aegypti (L.) and Anopheles stephensi (L.)

Larvicidal effect of neem (Azadirachta indica) and karanja (Pongamia glabra) oil cakes (individuals and combination) was studied against mosquito species. Both the oil cakes showed larvicidal activity against the mosquito species tested. The combination of neem and karanja oil cakes in equal proportion proved to have better effect than the individual treatments. The combination of the two oil cakes recorded an LC95 of 0.93, 0.54 and 0.77% against the mosquitoes, Culex quinquefasciatus, Aedes aegypti and Anopheles stephensi respectively The increase in efficacy of the combination treatment over individuals in all the mosquito larvae tested was found to range about 4 to 10 fold in terms of LC50 and 2 to 6 fold in terms of LC95.     

Reproduction by worker honey bees (Apis mellifera L.)

Summary Genetic markers were used to study the reproductive behavior of worker honey bees. Five experiments were conducted that demonstrate the significance of worker reproduction. Biases were found in the egg-laying success of workers belonging to different subfamilies within queenless colonies, however, members of all subfamilies laid eggs. These biases were probably not a consequence of direct reproductive competition among subfamily members but most likely represent genetic variability for the timing of the onset of oviposition. Workers preferentially oviposit in drone-sized cells, demonstrating a caste-specific adaptation for oviposition behavior. Drone brood production is highly synchronous within colonies and can result in the production of more than 6000 drones before colonies die. Workers reproduce in queenright colonies but at a very low frequency.     

Behaviour of endosulfan in cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.)

Residue levels of endosulfan were determined in cabbage heads after being sprayed with a formulation containing the insecticide and upon storage at room temperature (15–27°C) and in a refrigerator (2–5°C). The half-life was calculated to be 4.8 and 5.5 days. Peeling removed the residues by 92%. Similarly, washing and washing followed by cooking removed 72% and 97% residue in cabbage stored at room temperature. These treatments were slightly less effective for samples stored in a refrigerator. Household processes such as peeling, washing, and washing followed by cooking should be regular practice before the vegetables are used.     

Risk-sensitive foraging in common shrews (Sorex araneus L.)

Summary Risk-sensitive foraging theory predicts that predators which face starvation if there is a temporary shortfall in their food supply should choose feeding sites on the basis of variation in as well as mean expected reward rate. For a given mean reward rate they should choose high variance feeding sites (be risk-prone) if they are running below energy requirement, but low variance sites (be risk-averse) if they are running above.Common shrews presented with a choice between constant and variable feeding stations were more likely to visit the variable station when they were running below energy requirement and more likely to visit the constant station when they were running above. However, the tendency towards risk-aversion above requirement was greater than that towards risk-proneness below.When all shrews were considered together, the probability of visiting the variable station correlated negatively and continuously with intake relative to requirement.