Neurosecretion: peptidergic systems in insects

 Insect neuropeptides are produced in less than 1% of the cells of the central nervous system. Despite this, they are important messenger molecules which influence nearly all physiological processes, including behaviour. They can act as transmitters, modulators and classical hormones, and often exhibit pleiotropic functions when released into the haemolymph. The large number of neuropeptides that has been identified from some of the model organisms among insects underlines the complexity of the neurosecretory system; studies about the coordinated actions of these substances are in their preliminary stages. Recent advances in insect neuropeptide research will be reviewed here, concentrating on the distribution of multiple peptide forms in the central nervous system and adjacent neurohaemal organs, and the role of neuropeptides in eclosion behaviour.     

Evolution of mycorrhiza systems

 Most terrestrial plants live in mutualistic symbiosis with root-infecting mycorrhizal fungi. Fossil records and molecular clock dating suggest that all extant land plants have arisen from an ancestral arbuscular mycorrhizal condition. Arbuscular mycorrhizas evolved concurrently with the first colonisation of land by plants some 450–500 million years ago and persist in most extant plant taxa. Ectomycorrhizas (about 200 million years ago) and ericoid mycorrhizas (about 100 million years ago) evolved subsequently as the organic matter content of some ancient soils increased and sclerophyllous vegetation arose as a response to nutrient-poor soils respectively. Mycorrhizal associations appear to be the result of relatively diffuse coevolutionary processes. While early events in the evolution of mycorrhizal symbioses may have involved reciprocal genetic changes in ancestral plants and free-living fungi, available evidence points largely to ongoing parallel evolution of the partners in response to environmental change.     

Context dependency and generality of fever in insects

Fever can reduce mortality in infected animals. Yet, despite its fitness-enhancing qualities, fever often varies among animals. We used several approaches to examine this variation in insects. Texas field crickets (Gryllus texensis) exhibited a modest fever (1 °C increase in preferred body temperature, T _pref) after injection of prostaglandin, which putatively mediates fever in both vertebrates and invertebrates, but they did not exhibit fever during chronic exposure to heat-killed bacteria. Further, chronic food limitation and mating status did not affect T _pref or the expression of behavioural fever, suggesting limited context dependency of fever in G. texensis. Our meta-analysis of behavioural fever studies indicated that behavioural fever occurs in many insects, but it is not ubiquitous. Thus, both empirical and meta-analytical results suggest that the fever response in insects ‘is widespread, although certainly not inevitable’ (Moore 2002). We highlight the need for future work focusing on standardizing an experimental protocol to measure behavioural fever, understanding the specific mechanism(s) underlying fever in insects, and examining whether ecological or physiological costs often outweigh the benefits of fever and can explain the sporadic nature of fever in insects.     

The visual system of male scale insects

Animal eyes generally fall into two categories: (1) their photoreceptive array is convex, as is typical for camera eyes, including the human eye, or (2) their photoreceptive array is concave, as is typical for the compound eye of insects. There are a few rare examples of the latter eye type having secondarily evolved into the former one. When viewed in a phylogenetic framework, the head morphology of a variety of male scale insects suggests that this group could be one such example. In the Margarodidae (Hemiptera, Coccoidea), males have been described as having compound eyes, while males of some more derived groups only have two single-chamber eyes on each side of the head. Those eyes are situated in the place occupied by the compound eye of other insects. Since male scale insects tend to be rare, little is known about how their visual systems are organized, and what anatomical traits are associated with this evolutionary transition. In adult male Margarodidae, one single-chamber eye (stemmateran ocellus) is present in addition to a compound eye-like region. Our histological investigation reveals that the stemmateran ocellus has an extended retina which is formed by concrete clusters of receptor cells that connect to its own first-order neuropil. In addition, we find that the ommatidia of the compound eyes also share several anatomical characteristics with simple camera eyes. These include shallow units with extended retinas, each of which is connected by its own small nerve to the lamina. These anatomical changes suggest that the margarodid compound eye represents a transitional form to the giant unicornal eyes that have been described in more derived species.     

An immunological axis of biocontrol: infections in field-trapped insects

Insect immunology is an active research arena, however, the vast majority of research in the area is conducted on model species taken from laboratory cultures. We tested the hypothesis that insects are regularly exposed to infections or invasions in nature and here report results of a field study designed to assess the extent of natural infections in insects collected from agrarian fields surrounding Kahramanmaraş, Turkey. Specimens were dissected to assess numbers of nodules. Formation of darkened, melanotic nodules is the predominant cellular immune reaction to microbial and parasitic infection, and once formed, the nodules are permanently attached to internal surfaces. The collected insects were healthy. Of the >400 examined specimens, at least some nodules were found in 98%. Numbers of nodules ranged from ∼2/individual to >100 nodules/individual. We conclude that insects are regularly challenged by microbial and parasitic infections from which they recover. The novel implication of our data is that insect immune systems may limit the host range and effectiveness of agents deployed in biological control programs. Knowledge of insect immune systems may contribute to increased use of biopesticides globally.     

Margins of agricultural fields as habitats for pollinating insects

The occurrence of pollinating insects in field margins with different vegetation was studied in field experiments. Some margins were widened and vegetation was established by sowing of leguminous plants or was allowed to invade spontaneously. The communities of pollinating insects in reclaimed field margins were compared with those of a margin with a naturally diverse flora and an adjacent pasture. A beehive was placed in the area and the collection of pollen by the honey-bees was followed over the season in order to compare the bees' preferences with the supply of flowering plants available in the different experimental field margins. The sown leguminous plants were very attractive to most insect groups, especially bees and bumble-bees, and their pollen constituted an important part of the bees' total catch. The vegetation established by spontaneous succession especially attracted Syrphidae and other groups of Diptera. Butterflies were found in all vegetation types. It is concluded that small areas with flowering plants can give highly positive effects. The key question is how to avoid weed problems and keep the most attractive plant species with a minimum of cost and effort.     

地质处置EDZ的演化过程研究

中国拟采用地质处置的方式处理高放废物.高放废物处置库采用"多重屏障"单元概念设计,此处置方案实施过程中不可避免地对于处置岩层产生了扰动或损伤.该区域作为工程屏障的一部分,对处置库安全评价具有重要意义.通过对国际上EDZ研究工作的调研,归纳了EDZ演化工程以及模拟工作,提出了EDZ研究过程中需要关注的方面.EDZ研究需要关注EDZ的结构和水流的各向异性特征,EDZ密封有效性以及密封材料与围岩界面反应机理以及EDZ的综合评价方法.     

非常规突发灾害事故的演化机理与演变路径分析

为完善非常规突发灾害事故的演化机理及演变路径,提高应急指挥决策的准确性,本文在定义非常规突发灾害事故和介绍突变理论原理的基础上,通过轨迹交叉理论对非常规突发灾害事故的致因进行分析,建立了非常规突发灾害事故的尖点突变模型,并描述了此类灾害事故的五种具体演化模式;同时,基于灾害事故、承灾体、致灾体、应急救援活动四个要素,分析了非常规突发灾害事故几个关键情景的可能演变路径,旨在为针对非常规突发灾害事故的可能演变路径而进行应对提供决策依据。     

Evolution and longevity-assurance processes

The role of the development of information fidelity systems in evolution is explored, with evidence that the loss in the ability to maintain the integrity of homeostasis in organisms over time, aging, is correlated with the loss in the ability to maintain integrity at the molecular biological level. Evolutionary-comparative analysis places an upper limit on the number of these systems important to the evolution of longevity in the primates, and suggests the importance of insuring the stability of information bearing macromolecules in evolution and the role of modulators of damage to these moieties in the expression of the senescent state