VIEWS OF NATURE AND SELF-DISCIPLINE: EVIDENCE FROM INNER CITY CHILDREN

Children growing up in the inner city are at risk of academic underachievement, juvenile delinquency, teenage pregnancy, and other important negative outcomes. Avoiding these outcomes requires self-discipline. Self-discipline, in turn, may draw on directed attention, a limited resource that can be renewed through contact with nature. This study examined the relationship between near-home nature and three forms of self-discipline in 169 inner city girls and boys randomly assigned to 12 architecturally identical high-rise buildings with varying levels of nearby nature. Parent ratings of the naturalness of the view from home were used to predict children's performance on tests of concentration, impulse inhibition, and delay of gratification. Regressions indicated that, on average, the more natural a girl's view from home, the better her performance at each of these forms of self-discipline. For girls, view accounted for 20% of the variance in scores on the combined self-discipline index. For boys, who typically spend less time playing in and around their homes, view from home showed no relationship to performance on any measure. These findings suggest that, for girls, green space immediately outside the home can help them lead more effective, self-disciplined lives. For boys, perhaps more distant green spaces are equally important.     

The image and experience of high rise housing in Israel

High rise housing is characterized by two major factors—height and number of people—each of which play a role in the image created and each of which are associated with advantages and disadvantages. The purpose of this study was to compare the image of high rise housing which emerges from the literature with the image and experience of high rise living as reported within a particular physical, social and cultural context—that of Israel. Three hundred and forty four individual, structured interviews were conducted with middle-class women living in buildings from four to 20 storeys high. Data are presented on their image of high rise housing; their experience of specific aspects: such as crowding, neighbor relations, childrens' outdoor play; and their general satisfaction with the building. On the whole the results indicate that these Israeli respondents' experience does not correspond to the image of high rise housing as portrayed in much of the literature. Their image is a function of their experience, which in turn is a function of the interaction between their own personal characteristics (particularly stage in the life cycle) and the height of the building—within a particular socio-cultural context.     

The Importance of Place Names in the Search for Ecosystem-Like Concepts in Indigenous Societies: An Example from the Bolivian Andes

This paper aims to deepen the search for ecosystem-like concepts in indigenous societies by highlighting the importance of place names used by Quechua indigenous farmers from the central Bolivian Andes. Villagers from two communities in the Tunari Mountain Range were asked to list, describe, map and categorize the places they knew on their community’s territory. Results show that place names capture spatially explicit units which integrate biotic and abiotic nature and humans, and that there is an emphasis on topographic terms, highlighting the importance of geodiversity. Farmers’ perspectives differ from the classical view of ecosystems because they ‘humanize’ places, considering them as living beings with agency. Consequently, they do not make a distinction between natural and cultural heritage. Their perspective of the environment is that of a personalized, dynamic relationship with the elements of the natural world that are perceived as living entities. A practical implication of the findings for sustainable development is that since places names make the links between people and the elements of the landscape, toponymy is a tool for ecosystem management rooted in indigenous knowledge. Because place names refer to holistic units linked with people’s experience and spatially explicit, they can be used as an entry point to implement an intercultural dialogue for more sustainable land management.     

RESTORATIVE EXPERIENCE, SELF-REGULATION, AND CHILDREN''s PLACE PREFERENCES

We examined the role of restorative experience and self-regulation in the formation of place preferences by Finnish children. Girls and boys (n= 55) aged 8–9 or 12–13 and living in downtown Tampere or Helsinki answered open- and closed-ended questions in a structured interview. One or both parents completed a questionnaire. We did not find statistically significant associations between age or gender and type of favorite place, nor was a particular type of favorite place named disproportionately often, independent of age and gender. The latter result contrasts with previous findings with young adults. However, like young adults, over half of the children appeared to use their favorite places for cognitive restoration. One-third of the children reported using their favorite places for emotion-regulation. Use of the favorite place for restoration and emotion-regulation did not necessarily imply visiting the favorite place alone; however, 12–13-year-olds were more likely than the younger age group to visit the favorite place with friends. Surprisingly, many parents did not know their child's favorite place.     

Identifying hydrologically sensitive areas: bridging the gap between science and application

Researchers have noted that current water quality protection strategies, like nutrient management plans, lack a sound hydrological underpinning for pollutant transport processes. This is especially true for areas like the northeastern U.S. where copious research has shown that variable source area hydrology largely governs runoff generation. The goal of this study was to develop a scientifically justified method to identify the locations that generate overland flow. Furthermore, this methodology must be computationally simple enough that it can be utilized or incorporated into nutrient management plans and other established water quality tools. We specifically tested the reliability of the 'distance from a stream,'D(s), and the 'topographic index,'lambda, to predict areas with a high propensity for generating overland flow, i.e. hydrologically sensitive areas (HSA). HSAs were defined by their probability of generating runoff, P(sat), based on 30 year simulations using a physically based hydrological model. Using GIS, each location's P(sat) was correlated with D(s) and lambda. We used three Delaware Co., NY watersheds in the New York City watershed system with areas varying in size from 1.6 to 37 km2 and with forested and agricultural land uses. The topographic index gave stronger, more regionally consistent correlations with P(sat) than did D(s). Equations correlating lambda and P(sat) for each month are presented and can be used to estimate hydrological sensitivity in the region surrounding our study watersheds, i.e. in Delaware Co. This work is currently being incorporated into an Internet Mapping System to facilitate user-friendly, on-line identification of HSAs.     

Traffic noise and executive functioning in urban primary school children: The moderating role of gender

The objective of this study was to examine the relationships between noise and school children's executive functioning (EF). The study included 311 children (146 boys and 165 girls) aged 7–11 years, who lived in the center of Belgrade. Teachers rated children's EF on a standard scale evaluating their ability to work independently in a focused manner to achieve an end goal as well as children's ability to follow directions carefully. Residential noise exposure was estimated in three daytime intervals, one evening interval and two nighttime intervals in the middle of the streets where children lived. School noise exposure was measured on three different school days in front of children's schools. Socioeconomic status (mother's highest level of education and family income) was used as a statistical control. There were no significant main effects of ambient noise levels on EF, however, a significant interaction indicated adverse noise impacts on boy's EF. We discuss possible reasons for male EF vulnerability to noise.     

Children's Access to Local Environments: a case-study of Christchurch, New Zealand

This article provides a case-study of variability in children's independent access to their local environments in the New Zealand city of Christchurch. It is based on research with children in middle childhood, parents and teachers in four schools in Christchurch, each selected on the basis of variables hypothesised to impact on children's access to their local areas. The paper outlines why such independent access is of value, not only for children, but also for adults responsible for their safety, for the wider environment and for the local community. Variability within Christchurch is related to the socio-spatial nature of local environments. International comparisons are also made, drawing out the implications of differing cultural contexts for the pursuit of child-friendly cities. The article explores the role of social traps in impeding the creation of a more sustainable, child-friendly city.     

Ethnographic understandings of ethnically diverse neighbourhoods to inform urban design practice

The aim of this paper is to inform urban design practice through deeper understanding and analysis of the social dynamics of public outdoor space in ethnically diverse neighbourhoods. We hypothesise that findings from ethnographic research can provide a resource that improves cultural literacy and supports social justice in professional practice. The primary method is a meta-synthesis literature review of 24 ethnographic research papers, all of which explore some dimensions of public open space use and values in UK urban contexts characterised by ethnic and racial diversity. We summarise thematic understandings and significance of neighbourhood places of shared activity, parks, spaces of passing-by and of retreat. We evaluate the implications for intercultural social dynamics, exploring the spatial and temporal dimensions of conviviality and racism in public open space. We then argue that it is possible to develop principles for urban design practice informed by this work, and propose four for discussion: maximising straightforward participation, legitimising diversity of activity, designing in micro-retreats of nearby quietness and addressing structural inequalities of open space provision. We conclude that ethnographic research can provide detailed insights into the use of the public realm and also inform a more nuanced understanding of outdoor sociality relevant for an increasingly diverse society. The challenge is two-fold: for ethnographers to become less cautious in engaging with decisions and priorities regarding how cities change, and for urban designers to explicitly embed informed understandings of difference into their broad desire for inclusive public space.     

Urban early adolescents,crowding and the neighbourhood experience: A preliminary investigation

This interview study focused on urban early adolescents' conscious experiences of high density conditions. Thirty children residing in apartments in two boroughs of New York City (Brooklyn and Manhattan), participated in this study. Control variables included income level, age, family constellation, and length of residence. Sex, apartment density, building size and neighbourhood density served as classification variables. The interview lasted approximately forty minutes and addressed the following issues.Personal conceptualizations and definitions of crowding.Evaluation of the children's perceived neighbourhood.Peer relationships.Perceived social and physical opportunities and constraints.Interviews were tape recorded, transcribed and content analyzed.The children's conceptualizations of crowding emphasized large numbers of people, spatial restriction and an aversive experience of the situation as relevant components of the crowding construct. The restriction of behavioural choice as it relates to goal postponement and the child's efforts to come to terms with larger organizational social structures, underlined the interpretation of crowding as a socio-physical stressor. While information overload was depicted as another relevant characteristic of crowding situations, its aversive experience was mediated by the presence of known others. Even though this diversity on social and physical levels was often experienced as stressful, it was also positively viewed in situations where interpersonal contact or a sense of familiarity were not overriden by other situation demands.Boys tended to spend more time in their neighbourhood engaged in a broader range of activities than girls. In this sample, boys also took less part in structured group activities and rated their neighbourhoods somewhat more positively than girls. Girls experienced less freedom and more social restrictions in exploring and actively interacting with their extended surroundings than boys.The issues of movement and situationally imposed behavioural restriction were central themes in children's conscious experiences of high density situations. Emphasis was placed on physiological arousal linked to the perception of aversive social qualities of high density situations. It appears that an increase in the need to act out is more a function of the child's awareness of having to conform to external norms, or experiencing a loss of perceived social control in situations where vigilance is required, than a clear cognisance of spatial restrictions.The investigation of the impact of high density conditions on the child's sociocognitive development and identity formation is viewed as potentially fruitful directions for future research.     

困惑与选择：文化空间的旅游化生存实践探析

文化空间是特定文化的集中展现,是非物质文化遗产的两种基本类型之一.文化空间与旅游开发存在相辅相成的关系,但在旅游化生存实践中需要消除对文化空间内涵及其原真性认识方面的困惑.以文化遗产保护为核心,注重特色旅游产品的打造和整体旅游氛围的营造,并在多方力量的推动下,创造一个可持续体现文化精髓的旅游体验空间.     

Educational issues, school settings, and environmental psychology

This paper reviews selected research on classroom and school environments, using a framework that views schools from three perspectives—as places for learning, as places for socialization and as places for psychological development. Studies are included that deal with the impact of noise and classroom design on learning; the relationship between seating position, achievement and status; spatial cognition; the classroom environment and sex role stereotyping; privacy; and density. The need for classrooms to enhance children's feelings of competence, security and self-esteem is also stressed. The goal of the paper is to point out ways in which environmental psychologists can contribute to the improvement of the educational system and to the quality of life in schools.     

Children's Access to Local Environments: A case-study of Christchurch,New Zealand

This article provides a case-study of variability in children's independent access to their local environments in the New Zealand city of Christchurch. It is based on research with children in middle childhood, parents and teachers in four schools in Christchurch, each selected on the basis of variables hypothesised to impact on children's access to their local areas. The paper outlines why such independent access is of value, not only for children, but also for adults responsible for their safety, for the wider environment and for the local community. Variability within Christchurch is related to the socio-spatial nature of local environments. International comparisons are also made, drawing out the implications of differing cultural contexts for the pursuit of child-friendly cities. The article explores the role of social traps in impeding the creation of a more sustainable, child-friendly city.     

The relevance of psychosocial maps in the study of urban districts

This pilot study proposes a social map-making method based on the link between the evaluation of the neighbourhoods and the populations residing in them. It was carried on a sample of residents of Dijon’s urban area, a French city (N = 99) divided into four groups, according to the geographical location (in the city / in the suburbs) and the social status (wealthy / disadvantaged) of their living space. The procedure is inspired by social representation gathering methods. Respondents were asked (1) to evaluate their own neighbourhood and others on two scales (social reputation and personal appreciation); (2) to evaluate populations on two similar scales; (3) to determine how these populations are spared in the different neighbourhoods. The central hypothesis of this study was that evaluations of a sector would be linked to the populations living there in the representation of the individuals. Results showed that the correlation between the evaluation of a sector and the perceived proportion of French in this sector with a good reputation is strong and positive. The method has also showed patterns of repartition in the representations of the inhabitants: while certain populations are concentrated in precise sectors, others are scattered across the territory.     

珠江三角洲旅游空间结构分析与优化研究

着眼于宏观和中等空间尺度,从代表性旅游资源、旅游网络、旅游发展轴、旅游中心地体系等方面对珠江三角洲旅游空间结构的现状进行了系统分析,认为有进一步优化的必要;同时提出培育类型多样的旅游发展轴线、构建八大特色旅游文化板块、加快边缘区域的旅游发展、促进区域旅游流空间流动的相对均衡等四个方面的优化思路,这些措施对提高珠三角地区旅游发展的总体水平有积极意义.     

Children's appreciation of outdoor places in a poor neighborhood

Children 7–12 years of age, living in a poor neighborhood, photographed outdoor places where they liked to go in their neighborhood. In individual interviews, they discussed their photos, selected their favorite place, and discussed the places they disliked. Children identified parks and playgrounds most often both as liked and disliked places, and spaces near an acquaintance's home as their favorite place. Liked places varied according to children's age and degree of vegetation. Children's negative perceptions of places were centered on safety threats. Children distinguish favorite places from liked places only by the greater number of positive characteristics and activities they offer children. The study highlights how positive and negative features coexist in places of importance to these children.     

Health and behavior of children in classrooms with and without windows

The aims of the study were to assess the effects of light on the production of stress hormones, classroom performance, body growth, and sick leave, of school children. About 90 children were investigated in their school environment for a duration of one school year. The children were situated in four classrooms differing in respect to the access to natural daylight and artificial fluorescent light. The results indicated the existence of a systematic seasonal variation with more stress hormones in summer than in winter. The children situated in the one classroom lacking both natural daylight and fluorescent daylight tubes demonstrated a marked deviation from this pattern. High levels of morning cortisol were associated with sociability, while moderate or low levels seemed to promote individual concentration. Annual body growth was smallest for the children with the highest levels of morning cortisol. Possibly, the production of cortisol had some influence on sick leave. It may be concluded, that windowless classrooms should be avoided for permanent use.     

Privacy-seeking behavior in an elementary classroom

This study observed privacy-seeking behavior in an elementary classroom, investigated individual differences in privacy seeking, and compared preferences for private spaces varying in degree of enclosure. Four privacy booths were placed in a fourth-grade classroom. A ticket system was used to assess booth use. Information on personality and background variables was obtained with self-report, peer, teacher, and parent questionnaires. After an initial period of enthusiasm, overall booth use declined sharply. However, analysis revealed substantial individual variation in booth use that remained consistent throughout the study. For boys, booth use was significantly correlated with teachers' ratings of sociability, aggressiveness, and distractibility. For girls, a significant positive relationship was found between privacy seeking at home and in school. Self-reported desire for privacy was uncorrelated with actual privacy-seeking behavior in the classroom. No significant differences in the use of the various booths were found, although self-reported preferences clearly favored the booth that allowed visual access to the rest of the classroom when desired.     

Television viewing and public perceptions of hazards to life

Previous research on public perceptions of lethal or hazardous events have often cited the media as possible causes of inaccurate judgments of the frequencies with which such events are assumed to occur. No attempts have been made empirically to assess relationships between media usage and these perceptions however. A study is reported in which a representative sample from one region of Britain was asked to estimate the likelihood of personal risk from a number of hazards which were then related to how much television, and in particular, television news and documentaries they watched. Results showed that in the presence of controls for sex, age and socio-economic class, the overall amount of viewing, but not of news or documentary viewing in particular, was related to perceptions of personal risk on just four hazards to life out of a list of twelve. Heavy television viewers more often perceived higher risk from lightning, flooding and terrorist bomb attacks than did light television viewers, and medium viewers most often perceived higher risk from cancer. On this evidence it appears that aspects of television viewing are only sporadically related to public perceptions of hazards to life, and that viewing of news and documentary is unrelated to such perceptions.     

Who's on the greenway: Socioeconomic,demographic, and locational characteristics of greenway users

In response to continued public concern sparked by the loss of open space and greenbelts around American cities, greenways have gained nationwide popularity as a land conservation strategy. This study examines the socioeconomic, demographic, and locational characteristics of greenway users. Three hundred twenty users on four trails of the Capital Area Greenway System in Raleigh, North Carolina, were surveyed. The Raleigh system is extensive, providing 43.7 km (27 mi) of trails, thus allowing examination of greenway use in a variety of settings. The survey findings indicated that most patrons were drawn from within an 8.05-km (5-mi) radius of the greenway. The typical Capital Area Greenway user is a white female between the age of 16 and 34 with no children. Socioeconomically, greenway users are employed, well-educated, and have above average incomes. A disproportionate share of greenway visitors belong to an environmental group.