Atmospheric carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide on an urban/rural transect—I. Continuous measurements at the transect ends

Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide concentrations have been measured on a transect between urban Nottingham and a rural area 15 km to the south-west. In Part I, the results of fixed point measurements at the ends of the transect are described. Seasonal averages showed no significant difference for CO₂ or SO₂ concentrations in the summer; in winter the mean CO₂ concentration in the city centre was 5 μl ℓ⁻¹ larger than the rural mean. These figures conceal large differences in the diurnal variation between the two sites.     

Spatial and temporal patterns in nitrogen dioxide concentrations in a hot desert region

This paper reports seasonal and spatial variations in the ambient air concentration of nitrogen dioxide throughout the State of Bahrain, from February to December 1992. Monitoring sites were chosen to include urban areas with high traffic density, suburban areas with low traffic density, commercial and industrial areas. Correlations between meteorological parameters and mean NO₂ concentrations were analysed, and NO₂ levels were only significantly correlated with temperature (r = 0.63). Only February, a winter month, showed a significantly lower concentration of NO₂ with an overall mean value of 23 μgm⁻³, whereas in August, a summer month, it was 33 μgm⁻³. The results revealed that in a hot region like Bahrain, NO₂ concentrations do not show significant monthly variations. Also summer-averaged NO₂ values exceeded corresponding spring and winter values. In cold regions opposite patterns were observed. Moreover, the results revealed significant spatial variations in NO₂ concentrations. In suburban areas with low traffic density, the overall mean NO₂ level was 15, with a range of 12–17 μg m⁻³, while in urban areas with high traffic density, the overall mean value was 52 with a range of 44–60 μg m⁻³. The mean NO₂ value in industrial sites with low traffic density was 21 with a range of 14–27 μg m⁻³, whereas in the same areas near major roads, it was 32 with a range of 31–32 μg m⁻³. These results indicate that automobiles exhaust are the dominant source of NO₂ in Bahrain. The highest NO₂ levels were found in roads with high traffic density, which are narrow, with several traffic lights and roundabouts, suggesting the effect of road geometry on NO₂ levels.     

珠江三角洲地区大气中的粒子污染

从珠江三角洲地区航测发现,直径小于1μm的气溶胶粒子每毫升可达几万到几十万个,这类小粒子能沉积在肺泡中,对人的健康危害较大,而它们对能见度影响较小。这类细粒子的来源,除排放源以外,气态污染物的转化也是细粒子二次污染的重要来源。野外烟雾箱模拟实验表明,珠江三角洲二氧化硫转化率最高达12.7%/小时,影响SO₂转化的因素是SO₂起始浓度、相对湿度和光照强度。经估算,珠江三角洲地区现有火电站与拟建火电站所排放的SO₂经转化,单是形成的硫酸盐细粒子(≤1μm)污染浓度,约为每毫升几万个,这是一个不容忽视的问题。对广州城市大气污染物有机无机成分的分析表明,就对人体健康而言,广州市气溶胶中有机成分的污染占主导地位。      

Atmospheric turbidity and transmittance of solar radiation in Riyadh,Saudi Arabia

During the last two decades, the urban areas in the city of Riyadh—the capital of Saudi Arabia—were increasing at an exceptionally high rate through a series of development plans. The major plans had been completed by the end of 1982. Some other big utility projects were started and completed during 1987. As a consequence, the air quality has deteriorated markedly and air pollution episodes recorded during these activities showed that particulates were present in the atmosphere at high concentrations. Later in January 1991 the Gulf war started and the firing of the oil fields in Kuwait soon followed. It was estimated that soot particulates were emitted at a rate of 600 ton d⁻¹ along with high rates of other gases. This event has led to significant air quality and visibility problems.Direct normal solar radiation has been measured during the summer months of July and August which were characterized by very dry and cloudless weather for the period between 1982 and 1992. A year-to-year trend of the transmittance of direct normal solar irradiance was then determined.The atmospheric fine aerosol (<2 μm diameter) loading data during the same period were used to establish a correlation between the aerosol concentration and the extinction coefficient.The total horizontal and direct normal solar radiation measurements during some days when the dark smoke emitted from the oil field fires in Kuwait were passing over Riyadh are presented. The reduction in solar irradiation reflects the intensity of dark smoke at a distance of 500 km from Kuwait.     

Air pollutant concentrations in Varanasi,India

This study reports the diurnal patterns in the concentrations of ozone (O₃), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and total suspended particulate matter (TSP) in the urban atmosphere of Varanasi city in India during 1989. The city was divided into five zones and three monitoring stations were selected in each zone.Ambient concentrations of NO₂ and SO₂ were maximum during winter but ozone and TSP concentrations were highest during summer. The measured maximum concentrations (2-h average) were 150 and 231 μg m⁻³ (0.078 and 0.086 ppm) for NO₂ and SO₂, respectively, for the winter season. Ozone and TSP concentrations reached a maximum of 160 (0.08 ppm) and 733 μg m⁻³, respectively, in the summer. NO₂ and SO₂ concentrations peaked in the morning and evening. Peak concentrations of O₃ occurred in the afternoon, generally between noon and 4 p.m. Maximum concentrations of O₃, NO₂, SO₂ and TSP were measured in zones I and II, and minimum in zone V.     

Monthly and seasonal trends of total suspended particulate matter and smoke concentration in industrial and residential areas in Cairo

Total suspended particulate (TSP) matter and smoke were investigated at Shoubra El-Kheima industrial area and El-Dokki residential area located in Cairo. TSP gave the highest monthly mean concentration in 2 years' study at Shoubra El-Kheima (895 μg m⁻³), nearly 12 times the geometrical mean of air quality standard (75 μg m⁻³). The corresponding figure at the residential area is 544 μg m⁻³, which is 7.3 concentrations during spring and lower during summer. Smoke concentration in the industrial area was nearly 1.4 and 1.2 times its concentration in the residential area during the 2 study years. Smoke concentration was found to be light to moderate during 86% of the days and heavy to extremely heavy during 14% of the days at the industrial area. The corresponding percentages for the residential area were 90% and 10% for light to moderate and heavy to extremely heavy, respectively.     

Measurements of ammonia flux to a spruce stand in Denmark

This work demonstrates the existence of a linear relation between the deposition velocity of ammonia and the friction velocity measured above a spruce stand in the western part of Denmark. In order to estimate the ammonia deposition velocity and flux to a Norway spruce forest, concentration gradients of ammonia and several meteorological parameters were measured in a meteorology tower during two periods, 1 week in spring and 1 week in late summer 1991. The estimated deposition velocities lie in the range −0.125 to 0.201 m s⁻¹, with a mean of 0.026 m s⁻¹. The deposition velocity and the flux were generally largest in the afternoon. On the basis of 24-h measurements of ammonia and routine meteorological measurements the relation between deposition velocity and friction velocity is extrapolated to an estimate of the average flux for the growing season May to September 1991. The estimate gave an average flux of 87 μg NH₃N m⁻² h⁻¹ (=0.02 μg NH₃N m⁻² s⁻¹). The average deposition velocity for the period was 0.045 m s⁻¹.     

Measured components in total suspended particulate matter in a Kenyan urban area

Nairobi city has a population of over 1.5 million and is growing at a rate of about 70 persons per day. Various activities in the city such as construction work, industrial processes, use of unroadworthy cars, and dust blown off unpaved roads contribute enormously to suspended particulate matter in the air. In this paper, analysis by gravimetric and energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) of the suspended particulate matter in the air in the city centre, an industrial area and one residential area was carried out. The total suspended particulate matter (TSP) mean levels ranged from 69.983 to 397.903 μg m⁻³. The following components were measured from the TSP, mean values in μg m⁻³: iron 6.014–7.547, potassium 1.252–6.432, titanium 0.286–1.698, manganese 0.158–1.683, lead 0.395–1.321, bromine 0.122–0.707, zinc 0.159–0.678 and zirconium 0.017–0.245. The values of lead obtained (0.395–1.321 μg m⁻³) fall within the WHO recommendations, but compared to the values reported in some European countries, they are high. Most of the elements had low enrichment factors except for lead (104–353), bromine (429–1533) and zinc (14–79). Bromine and lead were highly correlated to the number of light vehicles (p=0.874 and 0.942, respectively). In addition the ratio of Br:Pb by weight was in the range 0.309–0.535, while the correlation factor for Br:Pb was 0.951, leading to the conclusion that both elements came from leaded gasoline.     

Studies on the effects of air pollution on limestone degradation in Great Britain

The CEGB and the Cathedrals Advisory Commission for England formed a Joint Working Party in 1985 to promote a research programme aimed at improving the understanding of the relationships between stone decay, atmospheric pollution and other factors. The programme has included exposure of limestone samples at York Minster and eight other sites in England and Scotland selected to give a mix of urban, marine and rural locations. All of the sites have comprehensive air pollution and meteorological monitoring and measurement of rainfall chemistry. At two sites samples have been fumigated with controlled levels of sulphur dioxide.Over all sites, there was a significant trend to increased weight loss with increase in average sulphur dioxide concentration, but a negative trend with total nitrogen oxides and with nitrogen dioxide. For sample exposures longer than 200 days, the sulphur dioxide dependence at the inland Liphook fumigation site was about half that found near the coast at Littlehampton. There was no significant trend to increase weight loss with total rainfall amount for the complete data set, but the analysis was dominated by the very wet Scottish site, which experienced the lowest average concentrations of air pollutants.A theoretical model for the chemical dissolution of rainwashed limestone has been derived from consideration of the ion and mass balances between the incident rain water and run-off water. The model has been fitted to the measured loss rates from the stonework field trials. With the exception of the very wet Scottish site, the difference between the stone loss rate, calculated from the model, and the mean measured loss rate for any particular exposure was generally smaller than the variation between the triplicate samples. Variation in the dry deposition velocity between sites and exposure periods does not appear to have been a very significant factor, and no residual effect due to the concentrations of nitrogen oxides was found. The natural solubility of limestone in water was the dominant term in describing the stone loss, and neutralization of the rainfall acidity the least significant. The volume of the intercepted rainfall and the variation in the pH of the run-off water with rainfall intensity have been identified as the two most significant terms which require more precise quantification. The data from the inland fumigation site used in the model predict a stone loss due to sulphur dioxide in the air of less than 1 μm yr⁻¹ surface recession per ppb SO₂.     

Atmospheric trace compounds at a European coastal site—application to CO2, CH4 and COS flux determinations

The variations of CO₂, CH₄, COS, and NMHC concentrations, and of ²²²Rn activity were studied simultaneously in the boundary layer in a littoral site in Brittany, France. Various meteorological conditions occurred during the experiment allowing determination of trace gas concentrations characteristic of air masses having either dominant continental or oceanic influence. The relative NMHC concentration of the air reflects the origin of the air masses. Oceanic air is characterized by high proportions of alkenes, whereas the alkanes concentration is higher in continental air masses.In 1986 alternate sea- and land-breeze conditions allowed measurement of the evolution of the composition of an oceanic air mass under continental influence. By using the variabilities of ²²²Rn activities measured during the experiment, as well as the estimation of its mean flux over continents, we deduced the mean regional fluxes of CO₂, CH₄ and COS to be 5.8, 0.07 and −36 × 10⁻⁶ m mol m⁻² h⁻¹, respectively.     

Urban air pollution in Brazil: Acetaldehyde and other carbonyls

We have measured ambient levels of carbonyls in three major urban areas of Brazil: Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Salvador. The most abundant carbonyls were acetaldehyde (up to 63 μg m⁻³, or 35 ppb) followed by formaldehyde (up to 42 μg m⁻³, or 34 ppb), and acetone (up to 20 ppb). Levels of 10 other aliphatic and aromatic carbonyls were in the range 0–5 ppb. Total carbonyl concentrations were in the range 11–75 ppb. Indoor levels were also measured at several locations in Salvador. High levels of acetaldehyde, 430 μg m⁻³ or 240 ppb, were measured in a highway tunnel.Using carbonyl/CO concentration ratios, mobile source emissions of carbonyls are estimated for the Sao Paulo area. Ambient levels of acetaldehyde and acetaldehyde/formaldehyde concentration ratios in Brazil are compared to those for other urban areas, and are briefly discussed in relation with the large scale use of ethanol as a vehicle fuel.     

Project aguila: In situ measurements of Mexico City air pollution by a research aircraft

Measurements of aerosol concentrations, chemical species and meteorological quantities in the air above Mexico City were obtained from an instrumented research aircraft. Concentrations of particles in the size range between 0.12 and 3.12 μm were nearly invariant with height, and typical values were of the order of 5000 cm⁻³. However, particles smaller than 0.12 μm were confined to the lowest few hundred meters of the atmosphere until the morning temperature inversion dissipated, after which time those particles, together with newly formed particles created by secondary processes, mixed to a greater height above the city. Total particle concentrations near the surface attained values in excess of 60,000 cm⁻³. An examination of the corresponding profiles of SO₂ suggests that combustion processes are likely sources for the additional small particles.     

Modeling of SO2, Pb and Cd atmospheric deposition over a one-year period

Atmospheric deposition of SO₂, and fine particles of Pb and Cd are calculated over a one-year period in a 66 km² airshed with a segment-puff model. Emission variations, hourly mixing heights and meteorological values are considered to compute monthly averages of concentrations and deposition. Dry deposition is calculated by means of deposition velocities which are season- and land use-dependent. Wet deposition is determined using a washout coefficient. To assess the simulation performance, calculated SO₂ results from the combination between the deposition velocity, the windspeed and direction and the location and type of sources. As annual averages, results for dry plus wet deposition are computed to be 0.84 mg m⁻²d⁻¹ for sulfur, 4.15 μgm⁻²d⁻¹ for lead and 0.0013 μgm⁻²d⁻¹ for cadmium. A variation factor is derived from a sensitivity analysis. This factor amounts to 2.3−2.8 for the concentrations and 2.6−3.1 for the deposition, depending on the pollutant.     

广东、广西地区酸沉降统计模式的研究

介绍了两广地区酸沉降模式,该模式的基础是定常欧拉型酸沉降模式,其中包括硫污染物的人工排放源,扩散输送,化学转化和干湿沉降,对全年120天气象资料进行计算和平均以后,得到广东、广西地区硫沉降的基本图象.从模式计算的结果可以看出,在目前低空排放(排放源在300m以下)的条件下,城市污染源排放的硫污染物的输送范围约10~2km量级、污染物的浓度及干湿沉降量都有显著的非均匀分布.     

Chlorinated organic compounds in the troposphere over the western North Atlantic Ocean measured by aircraft

Results of 32 individual flights during 1985, 1986 and 1988 using a King Air research aircraft over the western North Atlantic Ocean and the Adirondack Mountains are presented. Measurements were made for selected trace organic compounds including α- and γ-isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), the summed isomers of α- and γ-chlordane, dieldrin and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The concentrations of compounds at altitudes of 300–10,000 ft indicate that these compounds were well mixed in the atmosphere and that for the most part, ground-level and higher-altitude concentrations were similar in magnitude. There was a high degree of variability due to time, meteorological events and location. Concentrations over the Adirondack Mountains in 1985 were the highest measured with means of 0.198 ng m⁻³ for HCB, 0.388 ng m⁻³ for α-HCH, 0.509 ng m⁻³ for γ-HCH, 0.340 ng m⁻³ for dieldrin, 0.480 ng m⁻³ for chlordane and 0.951 ng m⁻³ for total PCBs. Concentrations over the western North Atlantic south-east of Bermuda in summer 1988 wer lower, with means of 0.093 ng m⁻³ for HCB, 0.142 ng m⁻³ for α-HCH, 0.012 ng m⁻³ for γ-HCH, 0.016 ng m⁻³ for dieldrin 0.020 ng m⁻³ for chlordane and 0.600 ng m⁻³ for PCBs. During 1988 concentrations of most of the compounds were similar in the atmosphere of the coastal zone, 50–100 km off the U.S., to those measured near Bermuda. Chlordane, and to a lesser extent dieldrin, showed a decrease in concentration away from North America.     

Characterization and source identification of respirable particulate matter in Athens,Greece

Twenty-seven samples of respirable particulate matter (RP) were collected in central Athens during the summer of 1987. The samples were analyzed for the concentration SO₄²⁻ and NO₃⁻ (collected with Teflon and nylon filters and analyzed by ion-chromatography); organic and elemental carbon (collected on quartz fiber filters and analyzed with a thermo-optical method); and 20 elements (collected on Teflon filters and analyzed by proton-induced X-ray emission spectroscopy). Simultaneously collected samples for SO₂ and HNO₃ were also evaluated (collected with annular denuders and analyzed by ion-chromatography). T The average RP concentration measured was 80.7 μg m⁻³, well above the USEPA annual standard for PM₁₀ aerosol. In addition, high levels of organic (16.9 μg m⁻³) and elemental carbon (4.2 μg m⁻³) were found. Correlations between aerosol carbon and Br, Pb, NO and NMHC (all > 0.8) confirm that gasoline and diesel powered vehicles are one of the major sources of pollution in the region. Correlations between RP and Al, Si, K, Ca and Fe also suggest that soil aerosols contribute to the high RP concentrations. Enrichment factors for the RP samples relative to the composition of soil in the Athens basin indentify major contributions from vehicles (Pb and Br) and industrial operations (S, Ti, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn). Based on these results, a Chemical Mass Balance receptor model was applied to each of the 27 samples and the contributions to RP from soil (4.5 %), vehicles (20.3 %), steel industries (4.6. %) and cement plant emissions (3.2 %) estimated. Other major components of the RP were SO₄²⁻ (13.0 %) and organic carbon from non-vehicle and industrial sources (15.5 %).     

重点环保城市二氧化硫总量控制目标值的研究

根据城市的输送扩散污染特性和污染源排放结构制订出低、中、高和理想4种二氧化硫排放控制方案。根据高、中、低架源污染物排放 与地面环境质量之间的关系以及各重点城市年平均扩散系数,可以算出重点城市二氧化硫2010年总量控制方案对应的控制目标值。      

西安市秋冬季不同空气质量下可培养微生物气溶胶浓度和粒径分布

利用Anderson空气微生物采样器对西安市2014年9月~2015年1月间可培养微生物气溶胶进行采样、培养,分析不同空气质量下其浓度与粒径变化特征,并对其与颗粒污染物(PM_(2.5)、PM_(10))、气象参数(温度、相对湿度)和其它气态污染物(NO_2、SO_2、O_3)进行主成分+多元线性回归分析.结果显示,可培养细菌和真菌气溶胶浓度范围分别为97~1 909CFU·m~(-3),92~1 737 CFU·m~(-3).随空气污染程度加深,两种微生物气溶胶浓度均呈现增加趋势;细菌气溶胶粒径分布向粗颗粒偏移;而真菌气溶胶在低污染时呈正态分布,高污染时粒径峰值向细颗粒偏移.主成分分析结果显示,可培养微生物气溶胶主要与灰霾、太阳辐射和相对湿度有关.多元线性回归结果表明,细菌气溶胶与灰霾呈显著正相关(P0.05),与太阳辐射呈不显著负相关,与湿度呈不显著正相关;真菌气溶胶与灰霾、太阳辐射和相对湿度均呈不显著正相关.研究结果可以为评估微生物气溶胶所引起的环境与健康效应提供基础数据.     

医疗废物焚烧炉周边环境介质中二噁英的浓度、同系物分布与来源分析

采用高分辨气相色谱/高分辨质谱仪(HRGC/HRMS)测定了我国西北某医疗废物焚烧炉排放烟气及周边环境空气、土壤和植物样品中2,3,7,8-PCDD/Fs含量和组成,并对周边环境中二噁英来源进行了初步解析.监测结果表明烟气中二噁英毒性当量浓度(以I-TEQ计)均值为184 ng·m-3,远超医疗废物焚烧废气排放标准限值(0.5 ng·m-3),环境空气、土壤和植物样本中二噁英毒性当量浓度均值分别为7.30 pg·m-3、52.5 pg·g-1、146 pg·g-1,均处于较高的污染水平.污染源下风向上的环境空气样品中二噁英浓度明显高于上风向上样品中的浓度,下风向样品中的浓度随与污染源距离的增加呈现先升高后降低的趋势,最高浓度的样本距污染源700 m左右.烟气样品2,3,7,8-PCDD/Fs同类物单体质量浓度(毒性当量)分布特征与主导风下方向空气、土壤、植物样本中的具有较强的相似性.样本二噁英浓度空间分布特征、同类物分布特征及主成分分析数据均表明,该区域环境中二噁英主要来源于医疗废物焚烧烟气排放.