Food and hunger in Sub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa is by far and away the most disadvantaged of the world's three main developing regions. Worse, its situation has mostly been deteriorating for much of the past several decades. Its agriculture is severely under-productive, and per capita food supplies have been steadily dwindling. Its environments and natural-resource base, characterised by water deficits, soil erosion, fuelwood shortages, rudimentary agro-practices, and grossly inadequate infrastructure, are generally unfavourable for sustainable agriculture. The population has expanded until it far exceeds carrying capacity, yet its growth rate is the highest in the world. The region also suffers from more disease than any other region. There is widespread and deepening poverty. As a result of these and other problems, and despite major food imports, two-thirds of the people are malnourished, one-quarter of whom endure outright hunger, even semi-starvation. Both these proportions appear set to keep on increasing both relatively and absolutely. Were these problems to persist with their decades-long trends, there could eventually arrive a stage when much larger numbers of people would succumb to terminal malnutrition, precipitating a human tragedy of unprecedented proportions. Fortunately, success stories demonstrate that solutions are available, on the part of both governments concerned and international agencies. Because of ignorance, or rather ignore-ance of the potential mortality disaster ahead, however, not nearly enough has been done to address the challenge with the energy and urgency to match its scale.     

Sexual Violence and HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Intimate Link

Abstract

This paper critically examines how privatisation and liberalisation of electricity provision is reconstructing energy consumption practices. The paper discusses the commercial restructuring of the electricity industry in the UK over the last four years, illustrating how a reconfiguration of production and consumption interests is transforming the utility marketplace: differentiating the value of resource units, distinguishing between infrastructure suppliers and stratifying utility customers. This process is shown to be resulting in differential forms of service provision as utility companies actively engage with more lucrative customers, presenting opportunities for environmental innovation, while disengaging from unprofitable customers and heightening social polarisation.     

Sexual Violence and HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Intimate Link

Sexual violence is an epidemic that often overlaps with the AIDS pandemic and is often a cause and consequence of the spread of HIV/AIDS amongst women and girls. Presently, half or more of the 40 million people infected with HIV in the world are women. Millions of those infected are aged 15-24 years and have suffered some form of intimate partner violence. This group accounts for half of all new infections. In sub-Saharan Africa, young women account for 75% of HIV infections and are approximately two-and-a-half times more likely to be infected than young men of the same age (UNAIDS, Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic: 4th Global Report, Geneva, 2004). What makes women, especially girls and younger women, so disproportionately vulnerable to HIV infection, and why have current AIDS control efforts in sub-Saharan Africa largely failed to stem the epidemic in this gender?     

Building resilience to drought in desertification-prone savannas in Sub-Saharan Africa: The water perspective

Securing sustainable livelihood conditions and reducing the risk of outmigration in savanna ecosystems hosted in the tropical semiarid regions is of fundamental importance for the future of humanity in general. Although precipitation in tropical drylands, or savannas, is generally more significant than one might expect, these regions are subject to considerable rainfall variability which causes frequent periods of water deficiency. This paper addresses the twin problems of “drought and desertification” from a water perspective, focusing on the soil moisture (green water) and plant water uptake deficiencies. It makes a clear distinction between long‐term climate change, meteorological drought, and agricultural droughts and dry spells caused by rainfall variability and land degradation. It then formulates recommendations to better cope with and to build resilience to droughts and dry spells. Coping with desertification requires a new conceptual framework based on green‐blue water resources to identify hydrological opportunities in a sea of constraints. This paper proposes an integrated land/water approach to desertification where ecosystem management supports agricultural development to build social‐ecological resilience to droughts and dry spells. This approach is based on the premise that to combat desertification, focus should shift from reducing trends of land degradation in agricultural systems to water resource management in savannas and to landscape‐wide ecosystem management.     

She Came, She Saw, She Sowed: Re-negotiating Gender-Responsive Priorities for Effective Development of Agricultural Biotechnology in Sub-Saharan Africa

In this paper, we argue for the importance of incorporating a gendered perspective for the effective development of sustainable agricultural biotechnology systems in sub-Saharan Africa. Priority setting for agricultural policy and project development requires attention to gender issues specific to the demands of agricultural biotechnology. This is essential for successfully addressing food security and poverty reduction in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). There has been a great deal of debate and literature on the implications of gender in agricultural development and policy. However, the implications of gender in agricultural biotechnology and have received relatively less attention, especially in SSA. Based on interviews with key stakeholders in agricultural biotechnology across SSA, review of pertinent literature and field observations, we have found that incorporating a gendered perspective is critical for the sustainable development of agricultural biotechnology and requires attention in five areas: the inclusion of women, particularly women farmers, in decision-making around biotech/genetically modified (GM) crop and trait selection; equal representation of women as men in education for agricultural science and in agricultural biotechnology research and development professions; greater involvement of women in extension services and farmers’ associations for successful delivery of information about biotech crops equality between men and women in access to resources for biotech/GM crop cultivation; and increased control for women farmers over biotech/GM crop management and income generation. We explain the consequences of failing to include such gender-responsive considerations into priority setting for agricultural biotechnology development and policy in SSA and provide recommendations for how policy makers and project partners of development initiatives can avoid such oversights.     

Mind the gap: institutional considerations for gender-inclusive climate change policy in Sub-Saharan Africa

This paper positions climate change against the backdrop of gender, premised on the understanding that neither climate change impacts nor responses are gender neutral, therefore institutions need to respond accordingly. Institutions play a central role in facilitating policy effects and forming major nodes of interaction as well as determining the accentuation of risk. Drawing on examples from different parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, the paper seeks to elucidate why women should be placed at the heart of climate change interventions. Establishing the appropriate connections between gender and climate change will enhance the opportunities for problem-solving and can increase the efficiency and effectiveness of policy-making. The gendered aspects of climate change and environmental relations are analysed by using an African feminist approach as the theoretical framework to expand and expound upon this position. This paper also investigates institutional matters pertaining to the management of environmental resources and highlights some of the constraints that need to be overcome in order to ensure the inclusion and empowerment of women in the management of these resources. It concludes by calling for a thorough understanding of the gender-based power relations in the agendas and activities of environmental governance institutions at all levels in society.     

Adoption Potential of Conservation Agriculture Practices in Sub-Saharan Africa: Results from Five Case Studies

Despite the reported benefits of conservation agriculture (CA), its wider up-scaling in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has remained fairly limited. This paper shows how a newly developed qualitative expert assessment approach for CA adoption (QAToCA) was applied to determine its adoption potential in SSA. CA adoption potential is not a predictor of observed adoption rates. Instead, our aim was to systematically check relevant factors that may be influencing its adoption. QAToCA delivers an assessment of how suitable conditions “and thus the likelihood for CA adoption” are. Results show that the high CA adoption potentials exhibited by the Malawi and Zambia case relate mostly to positive institutional factors. On the other hand, the low adoption potential of the Zimbabwe case, in spite of observed higher estimates, is attributed mainly to unstable and less secured market conditions for CA. In the case of Southern Burkina Faso, the potential for CA adoption is determined to be high, and this assessment deviates from lower observed figures. This is attributed mainly to strong competition of CA and livestock for residues in this region. Lastly, the high adoption potential found in Northern Burkina Faso is explained mainly by the fact that farmers here have no alternative other than to adopt the locally adapted CA system—Zaï farming. Results of this assessment should help promoters of CA in the given regions to reflect on their activities and to eventually adjust or redesign them based on a more explicit understanding of where problems and opportunities are found.     

Corporate social responsibility and petroleum development in sub-Saharan Africa: The case of Chad

This paper contributes to the debate on governance, transparency and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in oil-rich sub-Saharan Africa, focusing on the case of Chad. Over the past decade, Chad has gained international standing as an oil-producer on the back of the World Bank-catalyzed Chad–Cameroon pipeline project, which aims to develop the country's oil-rich Doba region. The analysis begins by examining at greater length the challenges to implementing a CSR agenda in fragile states such as Chad, highlighting, specifically, the barriers to facilitating development in environments exhibiting Dutch Disease-like symptoms. It subsequently critiques CSR programs in resource-rich developing countries, questioning the role of corporate intervention in such settings. The paper concludes by examining how CSR has been “operationalized” in Chad itself, where to ensure that the finances generated from the oil project are properly managed, the Bank instituted a comprehensive revenue management plan.     

A protracted age of oil: pipelines,refineries and quiet conflict

This article examines the relevance of environmental justice (EJ) and climate change debates as points of articulation and mobilisation among community groups responding to a proposed refinery. It then compares media coverage of the refinery project, a bi-national pipeline and other energy and climate-related news events. The analytical frame joins the EJ paradigm with citizen mobilisation on issues of climate change and energy projects that emit greenhouse gases and that discourage development of renewable sources. Data were collected and analysed from websites, public message boards and media documents. Findings indicate that a community-based anti-refinery campaign combined local EJ struggles with climate activism, while challenging fossil fuel dependencies and calling for renewable regional energy. A climate justice community formed – yet their voices were in their blogs and websites, not in local or national media.     

Statistical evaluation of geochemical parameter distribution in a ground water system contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons

A shallow-depth ground water area was investigated to identify the dominant processes governing the distribution of hydrocarbon contaminants and hydrogeochemical parameters. The ground water in the study site has been highly contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons. A preliminary pump-and-treatment remediation technology was applied for 4 yr at the site. Multivariate analyses were applied to hydrogeochemical data obtained before and after the rainy season. The pump-and-treatment application, indigenous biodegradation, and mixing by precipitation recharge are the major factors or events involved in the distribution of geochemical parameters of the ground water in the study area. Site-specific artificial pavement also played an important role in the evolution of the ground water chemistry. A conventional graphical analysis method (Piper plot) of major ions did not effectively reveal these effects. In this study, we demonstrate the usefulness of multivariate analysis (factor and cluster analyses) using biodegradation indicator parameters, as well as major cations and anions, for the study of the ground water system in the hydrocarbon-contaminated site.     

Income,environmental considerations,and sustainable energy consumption in Africa

Evidence on income as a crucial driver of renewable energy consumption in Africa is mixed. But hydropower accounts for over 90% of renewable energy in sub-Sahara Africa alone. Yet, empirical evidence suggests that hydropower may not be as environmentally sustainable as believed and, as a legacy source of energy in Africa, may not accurately reflect attitudes on renewable energy motivated by environmental concerns. This paper examines the role played by economic performance in the rising sustainable energy consumption in Africa, focusing on the renewable energy sources that are compatible with sustainable development. The difference generalized method of moments, fully modified ordinary least squares, and dynamic ordinary least squares are employed to estimate the statistical significance of income, environmental sustainability proxy, and prices as important drivers of sustainable energy consumption in a panel of 10 African countries for the period 2000–2011—a time frame characterized by a rapid rise in renewables as a priority in environmental policy. With timing and measurement considerations on sources of renewables, results indicate that in contrast to recent literature, the rise in sustainable energy consumption in Africa is strongly driven by rising domestic incomes. In line with literature, however, there is a generally positive, albeit statistically insignificant relationship between sustainable energy consumption and levels of carbon emissions. Oil prices in real terms also correlate with sustainable energy consumption. Available data also show that countries with low energy security also coincidentally tend to have high small hydropower capacity, providing potential for sustainably reducing energy insecurity.     

Assessment of Lead Exposure in Thohoyandou, South Africa

Lead levels in different environmental media (soil, grass leaves, water, ceramics, pencil, paint, crayons and cosmetics) were determined to assess the major sources of lead exposure in Thohoyandou, South Africa. Soil and plant leaves were used as indicators of Pb pollution from vehicle exhaust emissions. After digestion with concentrated acids (HNO₃, HCl and HClO₄) Pb concentrations were determined in triplicate using a flame atomic absorption spectrometer. The mean Pb concentrations at the kerb of selected busy roads were 205.5 ± 90, 273.0 ± 90 and 312.8 ± 81 μg g⁻¹ and 154.7 ± 67, 182.9 ± 76 and 240.6 ± 66 μg g⁻¹ for soil and plant leaves (dry weight) respectively. These concentrations were substantially higher than the values found on soils 50 m away from the roads (97.4 ± 11 μg g⁻¹). Pb concentrations in plants collected further away from the road (50 m) were substantially lower (71.8 ± 9.0 μg g⁻¹). The observed levels on soil are lower than the UK critical value of 500 μg g⁻¹ for gardens and allotments; and 2000 μg g⁻¹ for parks and open space as well as the Canadian values for agricultural (375 μg g⁻¹), residential (500 μg g⁻¹ and industrial (1000 μg g⁻¹). From these data it was clear that Pb concentrations in soil samples were substantially higher than the levels obtained for plant leaves. The Pb levels in green crayons, blue crayons, pencils (from China & Germany), were 10650 ± 75.2, 8200 ± 52.4, 1160 ± 50.2, 79 ± 10.1 μg g⁻¹ for the inner contents; and 4870 ± 58.1, 5650 ± 55.5, 1950 ± 46.6, 60 ± 12.9 μg g⁻¹ for the outer surface paint respectively. The ceramics showed Pb levels of 630 ± 50.3 μg g⁻¹ (saucer) and 560 ± 32.2 μg g⁻¹ (cup), while the inner contents and outer surface paint showed 480 ± 32.4 and 318 ± 21.2 μg g⁻¹ of Pb respectively. Early morning tap water flush gave a Pb level of 20.6 ± 5.6 μg Pb l⁻¹. This value is higher than the WHO and FDA maximum permissible concentrations of 10 μg l⁻¹ and 15 μg l⁻¹ respectively.     

Highlights from a new petroleum industry report benchmarking performance,policies, and expenditures

Environmental Information Services, Inc. (EIS) publishes detailed reports and offers custom research related to the full spectrum of environmental issues facing corporations. This article highlights several key sections from EIS's new 1998 Petroleum Industry Report. It details the environmental performance, policies, and expenditures of the largest companies in the petroleum industry. EIS industry reports contain data on five key performance criteria—toxic waste management, hazardous waste generation, penalties, spills, and Superfund sites. Here we examine one of those—penalties—and the policies of the three largest companies. In the full report, which can be obtained from EIS, 15 corporations are analyzed based on all the performance criteria.     

Mobilisation and protest: environmental justice in Durban,South Africa

This paper examines the ability of civil society actors to champion environmental justice in an industrial risk society in South Africa by way of mobilisation and protest action. This paper presents viewpoints from key stakeholders at the Durban city level and three local case study sites to examine social capital relations to achieve environmental justice. It explores how civil society engages in social capital for mobilisation with itself and subsequent protest actions to engage with government and industry. The paper highlights that social actor response to engage in social capital for mobilisation and protests is best understood in relation to the socio-economic and political positioning of individuals or organisations.     

石油类在河流中自净能力的研究

根据河流的特点,利用示踪剂对河流中石油类污染物的衰减情况进行了分析,建立了污染物扩散模式,确定了河流不同断面的石油通量,求出了石油类污染物的衰减系数。为污染物的排放量和河流环境容量的确定提供了保证。     

石油工业污染防治技术回顾与展望(一)——油气田企业废水达标排放技术措施

江苏油田地处环境敏感的水网地区,素有“油井打在花园里”之说,环境监督和污染防治工作十分艰巨。油田历届领导对环境保护工作十分重视,特别是继淮河流域达标治理后,为确保2000年所有工业污染源达标排放,在环境保护管理方面拓展工作思路、创新工作模式;在实施HSE和推行清洁生产诸方面进行了积极的探索,并加大了水网地区污染防治技术的攻关、研究力度。形成了有特色、较实用的管理方法和治理技术,并多次参与了扬州市、江苏省、石化集团公司和国家环境保护系统技术交流。现介绍部分成果,以飨读者！     

Determination of urinary lead in school children in Manzini, Swaziland, Southern Africa

Two hundred and fifty-seven urine samples collected from school children living in the Manzini region, Swaziland, were analysed for lead (Pb), using a graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometer. The mean urine lead concentration for the urban schools ranged from 0.038–0.040 gml^–1, while that for the rural schools ranged from 0.017–0.022 gml^–1. The observed range shown by the urban schools was above the normal (for healthy humans) urine lead concentration of 0.035 gml^–1. However, the mean urine lead concentration for the rural schools was found to be lower than this value. The mean urine lead concentration for the urban schools was significantly higher than that of the rural schools. The differences in the mean urine lead concentrations for boys and girls from both urban and rural schools were found not to be significant, despite the higher values shown by the girls. The difference in lead concentrations between urban and rural schools in Manzini was thought to be due to the traffic density within the urban area.