Measurements of particulate matter concentrations at a landfill site (Crete,Greece)

Large amounts of solid waste are disposed in landfills and the potential of particulate matter (PM) emissions into the atmosphere is significant. Particulate matter emissions in landfills are the result of resuspension from the disposed waste and other activities such as mechanical recycling and composting, waste unloading and sorting, the process of coating residues and waste transport by trucks. Measurements of ambient levels of inhalable particulate matter (PM₁₀) were performed in a landfill site located at Chania (Crete, Greece). Elevated PM₁₀ concentrations were measured in the landfill site during several landfill operations. It was observed that the meteorological conditions (mainly wind velocity and temperature) influence considerably the PM₁₀ concentrations. Comparison between the PM₁₀ concentrations at the landfill and at a PM₁₀ background site indicates the influence of the landfill activities on local concentrations at the landfill. No correlation was observed between the measurements at the landfill and the background sites. Finally, specific preventing measures are proposed to control the PM concentrations in landfills.     

Modelling of environmental impacts of solid waste landfilling within the life-cycle analysis program EASEWASTE

A new computer-based life-cycle assessment model (EASEWASTE) has been developed to evaluate resource and environmental consequences of solid waste management systems. This paper describes the landfilling sub-model used in the life-cycle assessment program EASEWASTE, and examines some of the implications of this sub-model. All quantities and concentrations of leachate and landfill gas can be modified by the user in order to bring them in agreement with the actual landfill that is assessed by the model. All emissions, except the generation of landfill gas, are process specific. The landfill gas generation is calculated on the basis of organic matter in the landfilled waste. A landfill assessment example is provided. For this example, the normalised environmental effects of landfill gas on global warming and photochemical smog are much greater than the environmental effects for landfill leachate or for landfill construction. A sensitivity analysis for this example indicates that the overall environmental impact is sensitive to the gas collection efficiency and the use of the gas, but not to the amount of leachate generated, or the amount of soil or liner material used in construction. The landfill model can be used for evaluating different technologies with different liners, gas and leachate collection efficiencies, and to compare the environmental consequences of landfilling with alternative waste treatment options such as incineration or anaerobic digestion.     

Impacts of temperature and liquid/solid ratio on anaerobic degradation of municipal solid waste: an emission investigation of landfill simulation reactors

Management of landfill emissions, i.e., landfill gas (LFG) and landfill leachate, is an important and resource-intensive task. A long-term demonstration pilot, consisting of landfill simulation reactors (LSRs), was used to study the impact of temperature and the applied liquid/solid ratio (L/S ratio) on landfill emissions, characteristics, and trends. This pilot has already run for more than 1000 days since the end of 2004 and will continue to run for some time. The degradation of waste at different temperatures has impacts on the overall degradation degree and on the length of post-closure care required. Higher temperatures accelerated the degradation, but also resulted in higher leachate chemical oxygen demand (COD) and ammonia concentrations, which prolong the aftercare period. Meanwhile, at a given stabilization degree [e.g., 70 l gas/kg waste (dry)], the total leached nitrogen under psychrophilic conditions was 3.5 times that under mesophilic/thermophilic conditions, which resulted in a higher required effort for leachate treatment. The impact of L/S ratio or simulated annual L/S rates was also evaluated. The results show the significance of efficiently obtaining the targeted L/S ratio in order to achieve low landfill emission potential.     

Assessment of internal condition of waste in a roofed landfill

Recently, roofed landfills have been gaining popularity in Japan. Roofed landfills have several advantages over non-roofed landfills such as eliminating the visibility of waste and reducing the spread of offensive odours. This study examined the moisture balance and aeration conditions, which promote waste stabilisation, in a roofed landfill that included organic waste such as food waste. Moisture balance was estimated using waste characterization and the total amount of landfilled waste. Internal conditions were estimated based on the composition, flux, and temperature of the landfill gas. Finally, in situ aeration was performed to determine the integrity of the semi-aerobic structure of the landfill.With the effects of rainfall excluded, only 15% of the moisture held by the waste was discharged as leachate. The majority of the moisture remained in the waste layer, but was less than the optimal moisture level for biodegradation, indicating that an appropriate water spray should be administered. To assess waste degradation in this semi-aerobic landfill, the concentration and flow rate of landfill gas were measured and an in situ aeration test was performed. The results revealed that aerobic biodegradation had not occurred because of the unsatisfactory design and operation of the landfill.     

Modeling of perched leachate zone formation in municipal solid waste landfills

The paper presents a 1D mathematical model for the simulation of the percolation fluxes throughout a landfill for municipal solid waste (MSW). Specifically, the model was based on mass balance equations, that enable simulation of the formation of perched leachate zones in a landfill for MSW. The model considers the landfill divided in several layers evaluating the inflow to and outflow from each layer as well as the continuous moisture distribution. The infiltration flow was evaluated by means of the Darcy’s law for an unsaturated porous medium, while the moisture distribution evaluation has been carried out on the basis of the theory of the vertically distributed unsaturated flow. The solution of the model has been obtained by means of the finite difference method. The model has been applied to a semi-idealized landfill located in Palermo landfill (Bellolampo). Specifically, field measurements were conducted to determine the relationship between waste density and applied vertical strain. This relationship was then used to relate vertical strain to waste porosity. The inflow rate to the system was simulated via a synthetic hyetograph whose characteristics have been identified in a previous hydrologic study.Three simulations, each with a different initial moisture content, were conducted. The model results showed a different response of the landfill in terms both of flow rates throughout the landfill and moisture profile. Indeed, the initial moisture content drastically influenced not only the formation of perched leachate zones but also their extension. The model can be a useful tool in predicting potential for the formation of perched leachate zones.     

Modeling microbiological and chemical processes in municipal solid waste bioreactor,part I: Development of a three-phase numerical model BIOKEMOD-3P

The numerical computer models that simulate municipal solid waste (MSW) bioreactor landfills have mainly two components – a biodegradation process module and a multi-phase flow module. The biodegradation model describes the chemical and microbiological processes. The models available to date include predefined solid waste biodegradation reactions and participating species. Some of these models allow changing the basic composition of solid waste. In a bioreactor landfill several processes like anaerobic and aerobic solids biodegradation, nitrogen and sulfate related processes, precipitation and dissolution of metals, and adsorption and gasification of various anthropogenic organic compounds occur simultaneously. These processes may involve reactions of several species and the available biochemical models for solid waste biodegradation do not provide users with the flexibility to simulate these processes by choice. This paper presents the development of a generalized biochemical process model BIOKEMOD-3P which can accommodate a large number of species and process reactions. This model is able to simulate bioreactor landfill operation in a completely mixed condition, when coupled with a multi-phase model it will be able to simulate a full-scale bioreactor landfill. This generalized biochemical model can simulate laboratory and pilot-scale operations in order to determine biochemical parameters important for simulation of full-scale operations.     

Modelling of nitrogen release from MBT waste

The "LaNDy" model (landfill nitrogen dynamics model) is a new mathematical tool for the evaluation of the long-term behaviour of nitrogen in mechanical-biologically pretreated (MBP) waste. LaNDy combines a hydraulic model based on RICHARD's equation with one-dimensional heat flow in landfills, kinetics of biological degradation, gas diffusion, nitrification and denitrification. A suitable temperature-dependent N mineralisation sub-model was based on numerous data from the literature and own LSR-experiments. With the "nitrification modus" of the LaNDy model, kinetic data of nitrification, thermodynamic data of denitrification and diffusion characteristics of gaseous components (especially of oxygen and methane) are used as an additional input for the preliminary calculation of the long-time impact of nitrification and denitrification. Examples of predicted temperature distribution and leachate ammonium concentrations, using different landfill size, age of the landfill (10 to approximately 100 a) and hydraulic conductivity of the MBP waste, are presented in this paper.     

Perpetual landfilling through aeration of the waste mass; lessons from test cells in Georgia (USA).

Municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills worldwide are experiencing the consequences of conventional landfilling techniques, whereby anaerobic conditions are created within the landfilled waste. Under anaerobic conditions within a landfill site slow stabilization of the waste mass occurs, producing methane, (an explosive 'green house' gas) and leachate (which can pollute groundwater) over long periods of time. As a potential solution, it was demonstrated that the aerobic degradation of MSW within a landfill can significantly increase the rate of waste decomposition and settlement, decrease the methane production and leachate leaving the system, and potentially increase the operational life of the site. Readily integrated into the existing landfill infrastructure, this approach can safely and cost-effectively convert a MSW landfill from anaerobic to aerobic degradation processes, thereby effectively composting much of the organic portions (one of the potentially polluting elements in a conventional landfill site) of the waste. This paper summarizes the successful results of two separate aerobic landfill projects located in Georgia (USA) and discusses the potential economic and environmental impacts to worldwide solid waste management practices.     

An attempt to perform water balance in a Brazilian municipal solid waste landfill

This paper presents an attempt to model the water balance in the metropolitan center landfill (MCL) in Salvador, Brazil. Aspects such as the municipal solid waste (MSW) initial water content, mass loss due to decomposition, MSW liquid expelling due to compression and those related to weather conditions, such as the amount of rainfall and evaporation are considered. Superficial flow and infiltration were modeled considering the waste and the hydraulic characteristics (permeability and soil-water retention curves) of the cover layer and simplified uni-dimensional empirical models. In order to validate the modeling procedure, data from one cell at the landfill were used. Monthly waste entry, volume of collected leachate and leachate level inside the cell were monitored. Water balance equations and the compressibility of the MSW were used to calculate the amount of leachate stored in the cell and the corresponding leachate level. Measured and calculated values of the leachate level inside the cell were similar and the model was able to capture the main trends of the water balance behavior during the cell operational period.     

Reduced sulfur compounds in gas from construction and demolition debris landfills

The biological conversion of sulfate from disposed gypsum drywall to hydrogen sulfide (H(2)S) in the anaerobic environment of a landfill results in odor problems and possible health concerns at many disposal facilities. To examine the extent and magnitude of such emissions, landfill gas samples from wells, soil vapor samples from the interface of the waste and cover soil, and ambient air samples, were collected from 10 construction and demolition (C&D) debris landfills in Florida and analyzed for H(2)S and other reduced sulfur compounds (RSC). H(2)S was detected in the well gas and soil vapor at all 10 sites. The concentrations in the ambient air above the surface of the landfill were much lower than those observed in the soil vapor, and no direct correlation was observed between the two sampling locations. Methyl mercaptan and carbonyl sulfide were the most frequently observed other RSC, though they occurred at smaller concentrations than H(2)S. This research confirmed the presence of H(2)S at C&D debris landfills. High concentrations of H(2)S may be a concern for employees working on the landfill site. These results indicate that workers should use proper personal protection at C&D debris landfills when involved in excavation, landfill gas collection, or confined spaces. The results indicate that H(2)S is sufficiently diluted in the atmosphere to not commonly pose acute health impacts for these landfill workers in normal working conditions. H(2)S concentrations were extremely variable with measurements occurring over a very large range (from less than 3 ppbv to 12,000 ppmv in the soil vapor and from less than 3 ppbv to 50 ppmv in ambient air). Possible reasons for the large intra- and inter-site variability observed include waste and soil heterogeneities, impact of weather conditions, and different site management practices.     

Quantification of landfill emissions to air: a case study of the Ano Liosia landfill site in the greater Athens area.

Fugitive pollutant emissions from municipal solid waste landfills have the potential to cause annoyance and health impacts in the surrounding residential areas. The overall objective of this research was to perform an assessment of fugitive pollutant emissions and a dispersion analysis downwind of a specific landfill site. The study was performed at the closed Ano Liosia landfill site which is located in the greater Athens area. The human exposure from priority to health-risk pollutants emitted from landfill, such as vinyl chloride and benzene, was estimated by the landfill gas emission LandGEM 2.01 software combined with the atmospheric long-term dispersion model ISC3-LT. The emission and meteorological conditions under which the models were applied referred to the worst-case scenario. This scenario was used for the evaluation of the maximum human exposure assessed beyond the Ano Liosia landfill towards the residential areas. The above scenario provides the minimum downwind distance of the health-risk zone which is calculated to be equal to 1.5 km from the landfill. Within this distance the assessed air pollutant concentration for several air pollutants was significantly above the World Health Organization reference lifetime exposure health criteria. Finally, the applied methodology was used in the Ano Liosia landfill, where atmospheric concentrations of pollutants measured in the field were compared with model predictions.     

Preferential flow in municipal solid waste and implications for long-term leachate quality: valuation of laboratory-scale experiments.

In this paper, we study and quantify pollutant concentrations after long-term leaching at relatively low flow rates and residual concentrations after heavy flushing of a 0.14 m3 municipal solid waste sample. Moreover, water flow and solute transport through preferential flow paths are studied by model interpretation of experimental break-through curves (BTCs), generated by tracer tests. In the study it was found that high concentrations of chloride remain after several pore volumes of water have percolated through the waste sample. The residual concentration was found to be considerably higher than can be predicted by degradation models. For model interpretations of the experimental BTCs, two probabilistic model approaches were applied, the transfer function model and the Lagrangian transport formulation. The experimental BTCs indicated the presence of preferential flow through the waste mass and the model interpretation of the BTCs suggested that between 19 and 41% of the total water content participated in the transport of solute through preferential flow paths. In the study, the occurrence of preferential flow was found to be dependent on the flow rate in the sense that a high flow rate enhances the preferential flow. However, to fully quantify the possible dependence between flow rate and preferential flow, experiments on a broader range of experimental conditions are suggested. The chloride washout curve obtained over the 4-year study period shows that as a consequence of the water flow in favoured flow paths, bypassing other parts of the solid waste body, the leachate quality may reflect only the flow paths and their surroundings. The results in this study thus show that in order to improve long-term prediction of the leachate quality and quantity the magnitude of the preferential water flow through a landfill must be taken into account.     

Recycling, landfill consumption, and CO2 emission: analysis by waste input–output model

The emission of waste in an economy, including landfill, is to a large extent determined by its patterns of technology, institutions, and lifestyle. A mathematical model (the waste input–output model) is presented that gives a simple analytical representation of this interdependence. The model was used to evaluate the effects of alternative waste disposal and recycling options on the levels of industrial production, landfill consumption, and the emission of carbon dioxide, and also to analyze the overall dependence on landfill of individual industries. It was found that a systematic combination of the options could be effective in reducing the overall landfill consumption and carbon dioxide emission. Received: November 4, 2000 / Accepted: August 2, 2001     

A GIS based transportation model for solid waste disposal--a case study on Asansol municipality

Uncontrolled growth of the urban population in developing countries in recent years has made solid waste management an important issue. Very often, a substantial amount of total expenditures is spent on the collection of solid waste by city authorities. Optimization of the routing system for collection and transport of solid waste thus constitutes an important component of an effective solid waste management system. This paper describes an attempt to design and develop an appropriate storage, collection and disposal plan for the Asansol Municipality Corporation (AMC) of West Bengal State (India). A GIS optimal routing model is proposed to determine the minimum cost/distance efficient collection paths for transporting the solid wastes to the landfill. The model uses information on population density, waste generation capacity, road network and the types of road, storage bins and collection vehicles, etc. The proposed model can be used as a decision support tool by municipal authorities for efficient management of the daily operations for transporting solid wastes, load balancing within vehicles, managing fuel consumption and generating work schedules for the workers and vehicles. The total cost of the proposed collection systems is estimated to be around 80 million rupees for the fixed cost of storage bins, collection vehicles and a sanitary landfill and around 8.4 million rupees for the annual operating cost of crews, vehicles and landfill maintenance. A substantial amount (25 million rupees/yr) is currently being spent by AMC on waste collection alone without any proper storage/collection system and sanitary landfill. Over a projected period of 15 yr, the overall savings is thus very significant.     

Modelling and experimental investigation of environmental influences on the acetate and methane formation in solid waste

An anaerobic reaction model is represented and used for simulation of the biodegradation of organic compounds and the generation of biogas. The model is based on fundamental relationships among physical, chemical, thermodynamic and microbial processes occurring in municipal landfills. Local microbially mediated degradation processes occurring in municipal landfills are simulated in terms of hydrolysis of readily and inherently degradable organic matter, the formation of acetate as surrogate for intermediary low-molecular carbon substrates, and the generation of the biogases CH4 and CO2. Thus, the overall decomposition of the organic matter has been assumed to follow three sequential anaerobic reactions steps: hydrolysis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis. In order to study the impact of environmental factors on the biological decomposition processes, experiments have been conducted to investigate the effect of temperature and water content. In the degradation model, the impact of temperature and water content was defined as reaction rate influencing factors. Further, waste samples have been taken from four drill holes on a municipal landfill near Wolfsburg (Germany) and used to analyze and to describe the waste composition and prevailing environmental conditions dependent on the depth of the drill hole. The data and waste samples obtained from the landfill have also been used for model development and validation.     

Prediction of syngas quality for two-stage gasification of selected waste feedstocks

This paper compares the syngas produced from methane with the syngas obtained from the gasification, in a two-stage reactor, of various waste feedstocks. The syngas composition and the gasification conditions were simulated using a simple thermodynamic model. The waste feedstocks considered are: landfill gas, waste oil, municipal solid waste (MSW) typical of a low-income country, the same MSW blended with landfill gas, refuse derived fuel (RDF) made from the same MSW, the same RDF blended with waste oil and a MSW typical of a high-income country. Energy content, the sum of H2 and CO gas percentages, and the ratio of H2 to CO are considered as measures of syngas quality. The simulation shows that landfill gas gives the best results in terms of both H2+CO and H2/CO, and that the MSW of low-income countries can be expected to provide inferior syngas on all three quality measures. Co-gasification of the MSW from low-income countries with landfill gas, and the mixture of waste oil with RDF from low-income MSW are considered as options to improve gas quality.     

Washing of waste prior to landfilling

The main impact produced by landfills is represented by the release of leachate emissions. Waste washing treatment has been investigated to evaluate its efficiency in reducing the waste leaching fraction prior to landfilling. The results of laboratory-scale washing tests applied to several significant residues from integrated management of solid waste are presented in this study, specifically: non-recyclable plastics from source separation, mechanical-biological treated municipal solid waste and a special waste, automotive shredded residues. Results obtained demonstrate that washing treatment contributes towards combating the environmental impacts of raw wastes. Accordingly, a leachate production model was applied, leading to the consideration that the concentrations of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), parameters of fundamental importance in the characterization of landfill leachate, from a landfill containing washed wastes, are comparable to those that would only be reached between 90 and 220years later in the presence of raw wastes. The findings obtained demonstrated that washing of waste may represent an effective means of reducing the leachable fraction resulting in a consequent decrease in landfill emissions. Further studies on pilot scale are needed to assess the potential for full-scale application of this treatment.     

Passive drainage and biofiltration of landfill gas: Australian field trial

In Australia a significant number of landfill waste disposal sites do not incorporate measures for the collection and treatment of landfill gas. This includes many old/former landfill sites, rural landfill sites, non-putrescible solid waste and inert waste landfill sites, where landfill gas generation is low and it is not commercially viable to extract and beneficially utilize the landfill gas. Previous research has demonstrated that biofiltration has the potential to degrade methane in landfill gas, however, the microbial processes can be affected by many local conditions and factors including moisture content, temperature, nutrient supply, including the availability of oxygen and methane, and the movement of gas (oxygen and methane) to/from the micro-organisms. A field scale trial is being undertaken at a landfill site in Sydney, Australia, to investigate passive drainage and biofiltration of landfill gas as a means of managing landfill gas emissions at low to moderate gas generation landfill sites. The design and construction of the trial is described and the experimental results will provide in-depth knowledge on the application of passive gas drainage and landfill gas biofiltration under Sydney (Australian) conditions, including the performance of recycled materials for the management of landfill gas emissions.