A landscape vulnerability analysis method proposal and its integration in the EIA

Landscape is the area primarily affected by proposed human projects. The prediction and evaluation of the potential anthropogenic impacts under Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is therefore one of the major environmental tools for prevention of any deteriorative or destructive actions. To conduct EIA properly requires inclusion of a determination of landscape vulnerability which expresses the possible landscape reaction to impacts of any exogenous factors. When it is designated correctly, the suitable human activities are determined more accurately. Even though many techniques for this have been suggested worldwide, lots of deficiencies have surfaced in their application. This paper presents a method for landscape vulnerability analysis which consists of qualitative evaluation of landscape receptors, their scoring, the vulnerability degree calculation, and overall reliability evaluation. The method proposed can improve the impact objectivity of prediction and evaluation and the suggestion of precise mitigation measures with the purpose of achieving sustainable landscape management.     

A risk model for predicting the effects of lake-side development on wildfowl populations

The lack of quantitative analysis and general scientific rigour in environmental impact assessment (EIA) is well documented. While reasons for this may include political and economic factors, the lack of high-level statistical knowledge and skills in environmental consultancies probably contributes to the problem, particularly with regard to ecological studies. This paper develops a simple model for wintering wildfowl populations that predicts different levels of risk from lake-side development. The aim was to create a model that could be used easily and quickly by consultants, is readily understandable for developers and various groups associated with the planning process, with explicit assumptions that can be criticised, and predictions that can be tested with post-development audits. The model is used in a case study. The basic parameters of the model are (i) average wildfowl abundance on lakes before development, (ii) maximum potential density of wildfowl across lakes (Kmax) before development, and (iii) reduction in lake area suitable for wildfowl after development. The model includes abundance-area relationships that are useful for highlighting the importance of particular lakes at a site. In the case study, abundance-area relationships focused attention on two lakes with thick charophyte beds which supported higher than expected numbers of pochard and coot given their size. As well as being robust (confidence limits are calculated), the model's predictions are quantitative and testable, making it possible to compare the predictions with on-going post-development monitoring of wildfowl population levels. The predictions rely on the effectiveness of path screening, and post-development monitoring can suggest where screening should be strengthened if the model's predictions are not met. Similarly, if other assumptions in the model are not met by the development, appropriate action can be implemented.     

Auditing the Socio-economic Impacts of a Major Construction Project: The Case of Sizewell B Nuclear Power Station

This paper presents the findings of a post-auditing study which compares the actual and predicted socio-economic impacts (including traffic) of a major power station construction project in the UK. An attempt is made to determine the accuracy of the predictions presented at the public inquiry into the development, drawing on the results of a developer-funded monitoring exercise undertaken for the duration of the eight-year construction programme. The study found that a very high proportion of testable predictions prepared prior to the inquiry could be audited; of these, 60% were either within predicted ranges or accurate to within 20% of predicted values. However, one in seven predictions had errors of more than 50%. The study revealed no consistent bias towards either under- or over-estimation of impacts. The paper explores the reasons for the predictive errors identified in the study; these include a range of project-specific and more generic factors, several of which are likely to be applicable to other large-scale construction projects. The study is particularly useful in the field of EIA because it relates to several weak areas in current practice: the assessment of socio-economic impacts, construction effects, and monitoring and auditing.     

Practitioner Perspectives on the Role of Science in Environmental Impact Assessment

A large body of literature addresses the role of science in environmental impact assessment (EIA) but less attention has been given to the views of practitioners themselves. In this research a survey of 31 EIA practitioners in Western Australia was undertaken to determine their perceptions of the quality and importance of science in EIA. The survey results are compared with previous theoretical, empirical, and survey studies of the role of science in EIA. Interview questions addressed the role of science in impact prediction, monitoring activities, mitigation and management, and EIA decision-making. It was clear from the interviews that many practitioners are satisfied with the quality of science currently used in EIA, but do not believe that it is given sufficient importance in the process. The quality and importance of science in the predecision stages of EIA was rated higher than in the postdecision stages. While science was perceived to provide the basis for baseline data collection, impact prediction, and mitigation design, it was seen to be less important during decision-making and ongoing project management. Science was seen to be just one input to decision-makers along with other factors such as sociopolitical and economic considerations. While time and budget constraints were seen to limit the scientific integrity of EIA activities, pressure from the public and regulatory authorities increased it. Improving the scientific component of EIA will require consideration of all these factors, not just the technical issues.     

Towards a systematic approach of effect prediction: A handbook as guide and aid for environmental prediction. A review

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is based on the results of effect prediction. In general, there is much diversity in the expertise in the field of environmental prediction between the different categories of actors involved in EIA. In practice it became obvious in The Netherlands that the accessibility and comprehensibility of existing relevant information was insufficient. For improvement, a series of systematic handbooks on effect prediction, useful for all categories of actors, has been developed in The Netherlands. In this way, the selection of effect prediction methods to be used in concrete circumstances is improved and speeded up for all parties involved in environmental prediction. After a discussion of the purpose of the handbook, the realization and structure of the series are presented. Finally, the use and (potential) benefits of the handbooks for environmental management are indicated.     

Environmental Impact Assessment and Environmental Audit in Large-Scale Public Infrastructure Construction: The Case of the Qinghai–Tibet Railway

Large-scale public infrastructure projects have featured in China’s modernization course since the early 1980s. During the early stages of China’s rapid economic development, public attention focused on the economic and social impact of high-profile construction projects. In recent years, however, we have seen a shift in public concern toward the environmental and ecological effects of such projects, and today governments are required to provide valid environmental impact assessments prior to allowing large-scale construction. The official requirement for the monitoring of environmental conditions has led to an increased number of debates in recent years regarding the effectiveness of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and Governmental Environmental Audits (GEAs) as environmental safeguards in instances of large-scale construction. Although EIA and GEA are conducted by different institutions and have different goals and enforcement potential, these two practices can be closely related in terms of methodology. This article cites the construction of the Qinghai–Tibet Railway as an instance in which EIA and GEA offer complementary approaches to environmental impact management. This study concludes that the GEA approach can serve as an effective follow-up to the EIA and establishes that the EIA lays a base for conducting future GEAs. The relationship that emerges through a study of the Railway’s construction calls for more deliberate institutional arrangements and cooperation if the two practices are to be used in concert to optimal effect.     

Environmental impact assessment: An international evaluation

Experiences with environmental impact assessment (EIA) in a number of countries are discussed in the light of both explicit and implicit goals and objectives. Adequate environmental information is not always available to decision makers because of failure to apply EIA to all relevant decisions, the continuing inadequacies of prediction and evaluation techniques, the failure to consider alternatives adequately, and the bias of some EISs. EIA frequently results in changes to proposals and may result in stricter environmental management conditions in some cases, but some people regard it as a failure because it has not stopped development. Generally, EIA leads to better integration of environmental factors into project planning. Open procedures and freedom of information encourage responsiveness to EIA procedures, which can be weakened by discretionary powers and lack of access to the courts by public interest groups. However, legal standing may have side effects that offset its advantages. EIA can encourage cooperation and coordination between agencies but does not ensure them. Similarly, it can have a limited role in coordinating interstate and international policies. In the long term, the success of EIA depends on adequate monitoring, reassessment, and enforcement over the life of the project. EIA has generally opened up new opportunities for public participation, and may help to reduce conflict. EIA procedures need to be integrated with other environmental protection and development control programs, and various means exist for reducing its cost to developers and the public.     

屠宰厂项目环境防护距离的确定

综合考虑外界潜在污染源对屠宰厂的环境影响,从大气环境防护距离、卫生防护距离及外界潜在污染源的环境影响评价出发,分析污染评价因子的选取、标准值的确定、预测模式的选取和预测结果评价,实例探讨了屠宰厂项目环境防护距离的确定方法。结果表明,拟建化工项目未对屠宰厂的环境空气质量造成影响,TSP是外界污染源对屠宰厂影响最大的污染因子,综合计算大气环境防护距离值和卫生防护距离值得到屠宰厂的环境防护距离为300m。     

Environmental impact assessment in the People's Republic of China

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) procedures have been in existence in the People's Republic of China over the last decade. The impetus for China's introduction of EIA was provided by the Environmental Protection Law of the People's Republic of China, which was adopted by the Fifth National People's Congress in 1979. The EIA process, which is administrative and not statutorily mandated, has been applied primarily to construction projects. Four stages are typically involved in an EIA investigation: design of the investigation, evaluation of background environmental quality, prediction of environmental impacts, and an assessment and analysis of the environmental impacts. A variety of approaches is used for predicting and analyzing environmental impacts, ranging from ad hoc methods to fairly sophisticated mathematical models. The results of the EIA investigation are compiled in an environmental impact statement, which is used as the basis for decision making by personnel in environmental protection departments. The EIA process does not include provisions for citizen notification or involvement. Views differ concerning the effectiveness of the EIA program in protecting China's natural, social, and cultural environments. Some hold that the EIA program has brought about improvement in environmental protection, while critics contend that the program has had little effect in the prevention of pollution. However, most, if not all, observers seem to feel that the program should be continued and improved. A major avenue for improvement is to place the evaluation of a particular project in a regional context. An earlier version of this paper was distributed at a workshop on Environmental Assessment Development Planning held in conjunction with the VII Annual Meeting of the International Association for Impact Assessment, Brisbane, Australia, July 5–8, 1988.     

城市规划环境影响评价指标体系综述

城市规划是实施城市可持续发展战略的重要载体。城市规划环境影响评价的内容应集中体现在评价指标体系上。本文首先将城市规划环评指标分为总体规划和下位规划(专业规划、详细规划)两个层面,再分别系统论述城市总体规划和专业规划环评指标体系主要内容和结构,指出当前城市规划环评指标体系建立、内容、实施、总体与下位规划协调等方面的问题,奠定城市规划环评指标体系研究基础并为未来研究指明方向。     

Road Developments in the UK: An Analysis of Ecological Assessment in Environmental Impact Statements Produced between 1993 and 1997

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) has been required for certain proposed road developmentsin the UK since EC Directive (85/337) was implemented in 1988. The extent to which the requirements of the EIA Directive are met with respect to ecological issues has been explored in earlier reviews of road statements (Treweek et al., 1993) and of UK environmental impact statements (EISs) in general (Thompson et al., 1997). This paper describes the results of a further review of 40 EISs produced between 1993 and 1997 and also examines recent changes in the political context for EIA of proposed road developments,including developments in UK transport policy and the UK biodiversity process. The results of the review suggest that the ecological assessment of proposed road developments has improved in some respects, but also highlights the persistence of many shortcomings identified in earlier reviews. The reasons for ongoing failure to address these issues are explored. Key findings include a marked improvement in the extent of reference to consultation with statutory consultees and an increase in the proportion of EISs reporting the results of new ecological surveys. However, while potential ecological impacts were discussed in all the EISs reviewed, many still failed to predict the full range of potential ecological impacts.     

The role of public involvement in environmental impact assessment in Vietnam: towards a more culturally sensitive approach

This paper explores the extent to which Western approaches to public involvement in environmental impact assessment (EIA) have been transferred to Vietnam, constraints on their use, and their appropriateness for the Vietnamese context. The research is based on an analysis of the public involvement content found in 26 EIA reports from development banks and interviews with 26 key informants. The study found that public involvement in Vietnam is generally technocratic, expert-driven and non-transparent, similar to the early days of EIA in the West and emerging economies. Public involvement usually occurs through authorised state channels such as commune leaders, mass organisations and professional organisations. The lack of a participatory culture for EIA, the nascent nature of grassroots democracy in the country, and Vietnamese cultural norms regarding respect for authority provide a challenging context for involving the public in EIA. The paper concludes by offering a number of suggestions for culturally appropriate public involvement at a time when Vietnam has just introduced mandatory public consultation for EIAs.     

Institutional Challenges for EIA Implementation in China: A Case Study of Development Versus Environmental Protection

This paper provides a complete case study analysis of environmental impact assessment (EIA) implementation in China from planning to legal challenge, which is typical but rarely reported. The analysis takes an historical perspective on the regulatory and institutional structures through which EIA has been implemented in China, in order to evaluate the extent to which EIA has matured over the last 10 years. The case study relates to a proposed recreation/tourist development at Dianshan Lake, a protected water resource for Shanghai. Legal and administrative challenge began in 1993, when the case was initiated with a letter from the public, and concluded in 1996, when the case was decided in a court judgment. More recent follow-up research indicates that many issues have continued to be problems for EIA implementation in China. Policy implications in terms of regulatory structure, institutional arrangement, EIA procedure, EIA practitioners, and public participation can be drawn, and lessons learned for both the government and the developers. The study emphasizes the problem of relying on reorientation of existing institutions to promote new (environmental) priorities.     

Socio-economic Impacts: Are They Still the Poor Relations in UK Environmental Statements?

This paper discusses the treatment of social and economic impacts within UK environmental impact assessment (EIA). Socio-economic effects have an uncertain status in EIA, guidance on their assessment is limited and their treatment is often partial and of poor quality. This has led some commentators to view socio-economic impacts as the 'poor relations' in EIA. The paper presents the results of a recent review of the socio-economic component of UK environmental statements (ESs), which provides information on the extent, scope, balance and quality of socio-economic impact treatment. The review reveals that, although most ESs include some information on socio-economic issues, coverage tends to be narrowly focused on a small number of--primarily beneficial economic--impact types. Quantification of socio-economic impacts is also rarely attempted. The review findings are compared with those of similar studies undertaken in the mid-1990s, and the paper concludes with some recommendations for EIA practitioners relating to the treatment of socio-economic impacts.     

Discretionary Judgement in Local Planning Authority Decision Making: Screening Development Proposals for Environmental Impact Assessment

Screening is a critical decision-stage in the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process and involves the determination of whether or not a development proposal will require EIA. This decision requires a discretionary judgement on whether the development has the potential to cause ‘significant environmental effects’, and consequently there is potential for diversity to exist in formal requests for EIA. Drawing upon a comprehensive survey of Local Planning Authorities (LPAs) in England and Wales, this paper explores the characteristics of LPA screening decision making since the introduction of revised EIA regulations in March 1999. The paper starts with a theoretical overview of rationality, decision making and planning theory, followed by a brief review of the regulatory context of EIA screening. The research approach is then outlined and the survey findings are presented, including a detailed consideration of organizational and individual level analyses set within the context of planning theory judgement debates. Comparisons with other European countries are briefly made, before drawing conclusions and recommendations.     

From Poole to Fulham: A Changing Culture in UK Environmental Impact Assessment Decision Making?

This paper examines the role of environmental impact assessment (EIA) in project authorization decision making and the way in which the courts have interpreted its role. The purpose of the paper is to establish whether or not that role has changed over the period between the introduction of EIA in 1988 and 2001. From the evidence reported here, it is argued that while the procedural stages of EIA have been very much strengthened over that period, the importance of EIA as a tool to aid planning authorization decision making remains largely peripheral.     

An approach to integrate impact scoping with environmental impact assessment

Impact scoping is the process of identifying important issues of a proposal and focusing the environmental impact assessment (EIA) on the high-priority issues. Although impact scoping in one form or another has been inherent to EIA for some time, documentation of its development and discussion of refinements to impact scoping processes have not been forthcoming. This article traces the development of impact scoping through time and highlights the need for such processes in EIA. A focused environmental assessment (FEA) approach to impact scoping that is suitable for implementation in an EIA is presented here and advantages of its use are delineated. FEA is a three-staged process that encourages impact scoping through progressive steps including impact identification, assessment and management planning. FEA combines a suite of EIA methods including: issues matrices, impact hypotheses, valued ecosystem components, and stakeholder participation sessions to effectively integrate impact scoping with EIA.     

粮食产量预测理论、方法与应用Ⅲ.粮食生产潜力中、长期预测理论、模型及其应用

粮食生产潜力中、长期预测的目的是为国家中、长期粮食生产规划提供科学依据。粮食生产潜力中、长期预测的“双向预测理论”：从若干个预测模型中选择出2个模型,一个模型预测的未来产量是持续增加的,体现产量持续增加的科技进步力量;另一个模型预测的未来产量是先增加后减少或持续减少的,体现影响产量持续增加的负面综合因素力量。应用结果表明：模型可预测未来1~10年的粮食生产潜力,平均预测误差在5％以内。大量案例证明粮食生产潜力中、长期预测的“双向预测理论”是科学的、方法是通用的、结果是实用的。