Off-grid: community energy and the pursuit of self-sufficiency in British Columbia's remote and First Nations communities

Remote or off-grid communities in Canada primarily rely on diesel generators for the provision of their electricity. Often surrounded by potential renewable resources, they are characterised as the low-hanging fruit of greenhouse gas mitigation strategies. While much is said about the promises of community energy projects, as well as technologies and policy mechanisms for addressing the needs of these communities, little attention has been paid to what communities, themselves, might want for their energy projects and what the implications of those desires might be for both technology development and community energy policies. This paper aims to fill this gap by exploring the on-going energy pursuits of a number of remote First Nations communities in British Columbia. It identifies a desire for community self-sufficiency as a primary motivation for engaging with energy projects on the part of the communities and discusses the various meanings and implications of self-sufficiency in the context of community energy projects. These meanings and implications primarily include the two dimensions of material self-sufficiency and political self-determination, the latter of which suggests a view of community energy projects as processes of decolonisation among First Nation communities in British Columbia. It then suggests that the pursuit of this goal is somewhat incongruent with the approach that government and industry have taken in addressing community energy, especially the way in which remote communities are viewed as the low-hanging fruit of various sustainability projects.     

RELATION OF MACROINVERTEBRATE COMMUNITY IMPAIRMENT TO CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS IN NEW JERSEY STREAMS1

ABSTRACT: The level of macroinvertebrate community impairment was statistically related to selected basin and water-quality characteristics in New Jersey streams. More than 700 ambient biomonitoring stations were chosen to evaluate potential and known anthropogenic effects. Macroinvertebrate communities were assessed with a modified rapid-bioassessment approach using three impairment ratings (nonimpaired, moderately impaired, and severely impaired). Maximum-likelihood multiple logistic-regression analysis was used to develop equations defining the probability of community impairment above predetermined impairment levels. Seven of the original 140 explanatory variables were highly related to the level of community impairment. Explanatory variables found to be most useful for predicting severe macroinvertebrate community impairment were the amount of urban land and total flow of municipal effluent. Area underlain by the Reading Prong physiographic region and amount of forested land were inversely related to severe impairment. Nonparametric analysis of variance on rank-transformed bioassessment scores was used to evaluate differences in level of impairment among physiographic regions and major drainage areas simultaneously. Rejection of the null hypothesis indicated that the levels of impairment among all six physiographic regions and five major drainage areas were not equal. Physiographic regions located in the less urbanized northwest portion of New Jersey were not significantly different from each other and had the lowest occurrence of severely impaired macroinvertebrate communities. Physiographic regions containing urban centers had a higher probability of exhibiting a severely impaired macroinvertebrate community. Analysis of major drainage areas indicates that levels of impairment in the Atlantic Coastal Rivers drainage area differed significantly from those in the Lower Delaware River drainage area.     

Lenses for learning: visual techniques in natural resource management

In this study, we explored the use of selected visual techniques (e.g. video, photography, diagramming) in facilitating learning among Indigenous communities living in remote protected areas at sites in Vietnam and Australia. The techniques were employed during interviews and workshops aimed at accessing and enhancing local peoples' perspectives on their landscape and on specific natural resource management issues. The effectiveness of the different techniques for enabling learning varied markedly with the context, highlighting the need for facilitator skill and flexibility in application of techniques. Visual techniques helped to engage participants; encourage unrestrained and lateral thinking; provide opportunities for self-expression and reflection; and to expose participants to perspectives of other community members. Valuable insights emerged on broad aspects of learning and these were incorporated into a simple model that highlights three types of conceptualisation found to be important in these processes.     

地震勘探引起植被棋盘式分布分析

通过高分辨率卫星遥感数据和实地调研,发现黄河三角洲的很多区域因胜利油田地震勘探而引起植被棋盘式分布。地震勘探引起植被群落斑块扩展,就其生态作用来说,与当前黄河三角洲生态恢复、保护和重建植被这一目标相吻合。此种植被群落的扩展,无须额外经费投入,对此进行深入研究,寻找使其从自发状态转变为通过人工协调可在适宜区域最大限度扩展的对策,将有助于更好地协调油田开发和湿地生态保护之间的矛盾。     

A decision model for selecting sustainable drinking water supply and greywater reuse systems for developing communities with a case study in Cimahi, Indonesia

Capacity Factor Analysis is a decision support system for selection of appropriate technologies for municipal sanitation services in developing communities. Developing communities are those that lack the capability to provide adequate access to one or more essential services, such as water and sanitation, to their residents. This research developed two elements of Capacity Factor Analysis: a capacity factor based classification for technologies using requirements analysis, and a matching policy for choosing technology options. First, requirements analysis is used to develop a ranking for drinking water supply and greywater reuse technologies. Second, using the Capacity Factor Analysis approach, a matching policy is developed to guide decision makers in selecting the appropriate drinking water supply or greywater reuse technology option for their community. Finally, a scenario-based informal hypothesis test is developed to assist in qualitative model validation through case study. Capacity Factor Analysis is then applied in Cimahi Indonesia as a form of validation. The completed Capacity Factor Analysis model will allow developing communities to select drinking water supply and greywater reuse systems that are safe, affordable, able to be built and managed by the community using local resources, and are amenable to expansion as the community's management capacity increases.     

Some more polluted than others: unequal cumulative industrial hazard burdens in the Philadelphia MSA,USA

The aim of this study was to quantify inequities in environmental hazard burdening in the 357 towns and 12 city planning analysis areas in the nine-county Philadelphia Metropolitan Statistical Area. Points were assigned to 14 types of hazards, including Superfund sites, hazardous waste facilities, landfills, trash transfer stations, waste tyres, incinerators, power plants, polluting factories, and sewage and sludge treatment facilities. When points were summed, 39 communities were in the 90th percentile for total hazard points. Risk ratios were calculated for community characteristics. The risk of extensive hazard burdening was significantly greater for communities bordering the Delaware River and for communities with more than 3% minority residents, more vacant housing units, and adults without a high school diploma. Risks were significantly lower for the most affluent communities. Results point to the need to reform environmental laws at the state level to prevent the concentration of environmental hazards in vulnerable communities.     

Relative Importance of Water‐Quality Stressors in Predicting Fish Community Responses in Midwestern Streams

Fish, habitat, and water chemistry data were collected from 98 streams in the midwestern United States, an area dominated by intense cultivation of row crops, in order to identify important water‐quality stressors to fish communities. We focused on 10 stressors including riparian disturbance, riparian vegetative cover, instream fish cover, streambed sedimentation, streamflow variability, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, minimum dissolved oxygen, pesticides, and bed sediment contaminants. Fish community response variables included a measure of observed/expected taxonomic completeness; species‐specific tolerances to nitrogen, phosphorus, dissolved oxygen, and water temperature; the percent of species classified as macrohabitat generalists; and an index of pesticide toxicity to fish. Multivariate analysis indicated that total nitrogen was the most important stressor, signifying that fish communities were responding to total nitrogen despite relatively high levels common to an agricultural setting. Individually, fish taxonomic completeness decreased with increasing streambed sedimentation, whereas fish community tolerance to total phosphorus increased with increasing streambed sedimentation, riparian disturbance, and total nitrogen. These findings underscore the importance of multiple biological response metrics to better understand the effects of water‐quality stressors on fish communities and highlight the complex relations between total phosphorus and fish communities.     

Sustainability of wastewater treatment technologies

A set of indicators that incorporate environmental, societal, and economic sustainability were developed and used to investigate the sustainability of different wastewater treatment technologies, for plant capacities of <5 million gallons per day (MGD) or 18.9 x 10(3) cubic meters (m(3)/day). The technologies evaluated were mechanical (i.e., activated sludge with secondary treatment), lagoon (facultative, anaerobic, and aerobic), and land treatment systems (e.g., slow rate irrigation, rapid infiltration, and overland flow). The economic indicators selected were capital, operation and management, and user costs because they determine the economic affordability of a particular technology to a community. Environmental indicators include energy use, because it indirectly measures resource utilization, and performance of the technology in removing conventional wastewater constituents such as biochemical oxygen demand, ammonia nitrogen, phosphorus, and pathogens. These indicators also determine the reuse potential of the treated wastewater. Societal indicators capture cultural acceptance of the technology through public participation and also measure whether there is improvement in the community from the specific technology through increased job opportunities, better education, or an improved local environment. While selection of a set of indicators is dependent on the geographic and demographic context of a particular community, the overall results of this study show that there are varying degrees of sustainability with each treatment technology.     

An analysis of the environmental health impact of the Barekese Dam in Kumasi, Ghana

Although dams have beneficial effects, they are also acknowledged as having serious environmental repercussions if they are not properly managed. The objective of this work was to examine the impact of the Barekese Dam in Ghana on the health status of three riparian communities downstream against a control. The environmental health status of the communities was analysed with reference to traditional endemic communicable water-related diseases in the catchment area, which were identified as malaria, urinary schistosomiasis, infectious hepatitis, diarrhoeal diseases and scabies. Case-control study was then conducted in the three phases of the dam (pre-construction, at the end of the construction and in the late operational phases) to analyse the health status of the communities as a function of the phases of the dam. The results showed that the control community consistently had a much better health status than two of the riparian communities, which were closer to the dam in all the three phases. However, it had a better health status than the third riparian community, which was farthest downstream, only in the first two phases. This community maintained a fairly constant health status retrospectively and did not appear to have been affected by the presence of the dam. On contrary, the health status of the two communities in close proximity to the dam deteriorated in the late operational phase. The study therefore showed that there was a strong association between the presence of the dam and poorer health status of the downstream communities in close proximity to it.     

Community Sustainability Plans to enable change towards sustainable practice – a Scottish case study

There is a need for a global shift towards a low-carbon society and this requires action at the local level. The aim of the study into sustainable community development is to clarify the role of a community as a whole rather than the role of individuals within that community. Mixed methods of literature review and empirical study have been used to translate the knowledge and experience with urban sustainable development into empirical knowledge of a rural, market town setting. The exemplary case study is the Scottish market town Huntly. The main findings of the study show the need for three ingredients for a Community Sustainability Plan for a town such as Huntly. Community involvement is crucial in developing such plans in a rural setting. Further research in more remote settings, e.g. coastal and island communities, is needed to allow broader conclusions on rural sustainable development.     

Long-Term Community Dynamics of Small Landbirds with and Without Exposure to Extensive Disturbance from Military Training Activities

Military training activities are known to impact individual species, yet our understanding of how such activities influence animal communities is limited. In this study, we used long-term data in a case study approach to examine the extent to which the local small landbird community differed between a site in northeast Kansas that experienced intensive disturbance from military training activities (Ft. Riley Military Installation) and a similar, nearby site that experienced minimal human disturbance (Konza Prairie Biological Station). In addition, we characterized how the regional pool of potential colonizers influenced local community dynamics using Breeding Bird Survey data. From 1991 to 2001, most species of small terrestrial landbirds (73%) recorded during breeding surveys were found at both sites and the mean annual richness at Ft. Riley (39.0 ± 2.86 [SD]) was very similar to that of Konza Prairie (39.4 ± 2.01). Richness was maintained at relatively constant levels despite compositional changes because colonizations compensated local extinctions at both sites. These dynamics were driven primarily by woodland species that exhibited stochastic losses and gains and were present at a low local and regional abundance. Our results suggest that military training activities may mimic natural disturbances for some species in this area because the small landbird community did not differ markedly between sites with and sites without extensive human disturbance. Although our results suggest that military training is not associated with large changes in the avian community, additional studies are needed to determine if this pattern is found in other ecological communities.     

Ecotourism: The Santa Elena rainforest project

Summary This paper outlines an ecotourism project undertaken in the Santa Elena community in the Monteverde region of Costa Rica. The community is seeking to establish a rainforest reserve on a parcel of land that has been permanently leased to their high school by the Costa Rican Government. The Community and Youth Challenge International are developing an ecotourism project that will provide a wider economic basis for the area and employment for students graduating from the high school. This project seeks to achieve sustainable development and fulfil the development requirements of the population surrounding the project. This is in the belief that it is only when conservation projects benefit local communities, and are set up with an infrastructure that vests control within local communities, that genuine ecotourism is achieved.Stephen Wearing is a lecturer in the School of Leisure and Tourism Studies at the University of Technology, Sydney, Australia, and he lectures and consults in the area of Tourism and Environmental Planning, and Parks Protected Area Management. His particular interest is in ecotourism projects with local communities. He is linked with Youth Challenge International and people interested in becoming involved or looking for assistance in projects can contact him at the above address.     

Coastal resource complexes of South India: options for sustainable management

India's coastal resource complexes were traditionally characterized by a continuum of 'common property resources' or 'commons' that stretched from the shores to the seas. The continuum aided the existence of sustainable livelihood systems for local communities. Today, fragmented policy approaches and economic welfare schemes have caused the disintegration of community control over the continuum. As a consequence, livelihood systems of local communities have declined. The introduction of coastal management guidelines in the 1990s has exacerbated the situation. With reference to a coastal village located in the State of Kerala in South West India, the paper describes the trajectory of unsustainable change that has taken place in the coastal area resource complexes of the country. The paper argues for restoring the continuum of commons in the study area through community driven systems of natural resource management that are based on networks of nested institutions.     

Planning and development strategy for effective management of community forestry: lessons from the Thai experience

The forestry laws and regulations imposed by the Thai government to solve chronic deforestation have created conflicts between rural communities and government agencies over the use and control of forest resources. Therefore, the research carried out for this article focused on the study of community-based forest management practices in the northern region of Thailand to determine whether community-based forest management can lead to sustainable use and reverse the deteriorating situation and related problem of deforestation.
This study was conducted in a district of Phayao Province in northern Thailand, where a natural watershed has recently been managed jointly among ethnically diverse local communities living in upstream and downstream areas under the promulgation of the National Park Act. Research was based on both secondary and primary sources of data and information. An intensive field survey was also conducted through a standard questionnaire, supplemented by group discussions and informal interviews to understand the historical development of settlements in the study area.
The joint management of the community forest by the community, government and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) was recommended under the decentralised and participatory planning framework in the study area and also in other areas with similar environmental conditions. Equally important in promoting community forest management were the facilitating role of forest officials, the provision of support services, monitoring and enforcement of control mechanisms, and capacity building of local organisations.     

Perceptions and attitudes towards gas flaring in the Niger Delta,Nigeria

Gas flaring is the burning of crude oil’s associated gas. In Nigeria’s Niger Delta, the flaring process is usually very close to communities and their farmlands and has been implicated in serious environmental degradation of the region. Studies have suggested links between gas flaring and health problems in the communities and others have established relationships between gas flaring and poor agricultural yields. This study explores how the people in the region perceive gas flaring and what their attitudes are toward it. Ubeji town, a community where gas flaring takes place, was selected as a case study. It was found that the residents perceive gas flaring as hazardous to health, environment, and general well-being of the community. Most residents seem to be resigned to the continued presence of gas flaring activities in the community. The study, however, raised several questions on modeling perception and attitudes toward environmental problems in areas where political tension and economic adversity are prevalent.     

The multiple communities of low-carbon transition: an assessment of communities involved in forest carbon measurement

In recent writing on sociotechnical transitions theory communities are mostly conceived of as being local and place-based (“grassroots”). In this paper the implications for sociotechnical transitions theory of having multiple communities operating at different geographical scales, and with different objectives, are examined through a case study of low-carbon innovation in forests. The focus of analysis is the communities promoting sociotechnical innovations in the measurement of forest carbon. Innovation is being driven by the international United Nations climate policy initiative “Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation” (REDD+). The rise of REDD+ policy has prompted a flurry of activity in related scientific research, especially in the field of remote sensing. But other types of community are also actively positioning themselves as experts in forest carbon measurement: there are multiple communities at work, each with varying claims to innovation and expertise, from local (place-based) forest communities to international communities of foresters and forest ecologists. Recognition of the multiple communities operating within sociotechnical systems usefully draws our attention to the politics of innovation.     

Social licences to operate: for better not for worse; for richer not for poorer? The impacts of unplanned mining closure for “fence line” residential communities

Establishing “social licences to operate” with communities has become a significant corporate social responsibility agenda. The complex dynamics of these relationships can compound the impacts for communities when these contracts are not upheld. This article documents reflections from a rapid rural appraisal conducted in the Shire of Ravensthorpe in remote Western Australia after the Ravensthorpe Nickel Operation was “mothballed” 9 months into a projected 25-year lifespan. It captures how communication about the project and its time frames created a sense of consistency, predictability, certainty and trust – enabling social licence. The raising of hope and the emergence of mistrust underpin social, environmental and financial impacts of this event for the local community. Embedded in the theoretical dimensions of social licences, this case study highlights the problematic of social licences that engage with non-contractual stakeholders as partners in “booms” but have no legal responsibility towards them in times of “bust”.     

The significance and praxis of community-based sustainability projects: Community gardens in western Australia

Sustainability projects initiated by community groups can be significant in their contribution to the overall process of Local Agenda 21 planning and in their substantive contribution to sustainable communities. Community gardens differ from public gardens in that they are managed by community members rather than by local governments, although they may be located on council land. Community gardens vary in type from collections of individual plots to large-scale collaborative projects for the benefit of the wider community. Their roles include the production of fresh organic food; the creation of community places; and the use and dissemination of community science and innovative technologies. This paper reviews the types and roles of community gardens, and provides a case study of a community garden in Western Australia. It analyses the lessons learned from this particular case and the potential contribution of community gardens to Local Agenda 21 planning and to physical, ecological, sociocultural and economic sustainability.     

A SURVEY OF STATE WATER CONSERVATION PROGRAMS IN THE U.S.1

ABSTRACT: Adequate water supplies are critical to the maintenance of a community's health and economic well-being. Across the nation communities are struggling to meet an expanding demand for water from municipal, industrial, agricultural, recreation, water quality, and power generation users. As the demand grows and communities actively compete with one another for a limited water supply, states are being called upon to help solve the problem. One possible solution that is being used in many areas is the development and implementation of a water conservation program to stretch the limited supply as far as possible. using a mailed survey, state water conservation programs and some of the characteristics of the different programs were documented. Responses to the nationwide survey were obtained from all 50 states. The specific water conservation program elements on which information was received from the survey included laws and restricted use, community assistance, education, research, and other services. Recommendations for states developing or considering the development of a water conservation program are outlined.