Least cost electricity generation options based on environmental impact abatement

The power sector in Thailand is the largest contributor to CO₂ emissions. There is high potential to mitigate CO₂ emission via alternative power generating plants. Alternative plants considered in this study include nuclear plants, integrated gasification combined cycle plants, biomass-based plants and supercritical thermal power plants. The biomass-based plants considered here are fueled with four types of biomass; paddy husk, municipal solid waste (MSW), fuel wood and corncob. The methodology for the optimal expansion plan of the power generating system over the planning horizon is based on the least-cost approach. The results from the least-cost planning analyses show that the nuclear alternative has the highest potential to mitigate not only CO₂ but also other airborne emissions. Moreover, the nuclear option is the most effective abatement strategy for CO₂ reduction due to its negative incremental cost of CO₂ reduction.     

The asteroid and comet impact hazard: risk assessment and mitigation options

The impact of extraterrestrial matter onto Earth is a continuous process. On average, some 50,000 tons of dust are delivered to our planet every year. While objects smaller than about 30 m mainly disintegrate in the Earth’s atmosphere, larger ones can penetrate through it and cause damage on the ground. When an object of hundreds of meters in diameter impacts an ocean, a tsunami is created that can devastate coastal cities. Further, if a km-sized object hit the Earth it would cause a global catastrophe due to the transport of enormous amounts of dust and vapour into the atmosphere resulting in a change in the Earth’s climate. This article gives an overview of the near-Earth asteroid and comet (near-Earth object-NEO) impact hazard and the NEO search programmes which are gathering important data on these objects. It also points out options for impact hazard mitigation by using deflection systems. It further discusses the critical constraints for NEO deflection strategies and systems as well as mitigation and evacuation costs and benefits. Recommendations are given for future activities to solve the NEO impact hazard problem.     

Sulfate-containing amendments to reduce methane emissions from rice fields: mechanisms,effectiveness and costs

Application of sulfate-containing amendments is oftensuggested as a mitigation option to reduce methane (CH₄) emissionsfrom rice (Oryza) fields. This paper discusses the mechanism andpotential of this mitigation option, reviews the relevant experimental data,and presents first, indicative costs of application. CH₄ emission datafor rice fields with sulfate-containing amendments are compiled toreinterpret the resulting reduction in CH₄ emission and find a generalrelationship between emission reduction and amount of sulfate applied. Thereduction in CH₄ emission depends on the amount of sulfate applied.However, absolute emission reduction is location specific and cannot bederived from the amount of sulfate (SO^2- ₄) applied only. We established alogarithmic relationship, across locations, between SO^2- ₄ application andfractional emission reduction relative to the emission of the non-amendedcontrol field. Recycling of SO^2- ₄ in the rhizosphere was essential to explainthe observed reductions in CH₄ emission for a number of theexperiments. The cost of applying SO^2- _{_4}-containing fertilizers varies acrosscountries and depends on local fertilizer prices. Since a fractional reductionis obtained, the cost-efficiency in terms of CH₄ mitigation per unitof SO^2- ₄ applied will be highest in high-emitting rice production systems.Provided the proper target areas are selected, the cost of SO^2- ₄-containingfertilizer as a mitigation option to reduce CH₄ emissions in rice fieldsis estimated at 5–10 US dollar per Mg CO₂-equivalent.     

种植杂交稻对甲烷排放的影响及评价

早、中、晚稻三季24h稻田甲烷监测结果表明,种植杂交稻没有明显增进福田甲烷排放的作用．甲烷释放总量在3个种植季节中,除连作晚稻的杂交稻田比常规稻田高11．6％外,早稻、单季稻杂交稻田分别低于常规稻田6．4％和8．9％．稻田甲烷每周日平均释放量在水稻生长前期（移栽后5～7周）杂交稻高于常规稻,孕穗至收获期杂交稻低于常规稻．温度对甲烷释放影响十分明显．在不同水稻种植季节,稻田甲烷释放模式各不相同．经测定,杂交稻田的土壤产甲烷细菌数量及土壤产甲烷潜力明显高于常规稻田,其中产甲烷细菌数可相差数倍至2个数量级．试验结果还表明,种植水稻明显增加了稻田甲烷排放量,与侵水稻田相比．植稻田甲烷排放量增加了41．4％．     

Co-inhibition of methanogens for methane mitigation in biodegradable wastes

The inhibition effects and mechanisms of chlorinated methane and acetylene on methanogenesis in the anaerobic digestion process of the biodegradable wastes were investigated.It was found that both chloroform and acetylene could effectively inhibit methanogens while the biodegradability of the wastes was not affected.Acetylene inhibited the activity of methanogens,while chloroform inhibited metabolic process of methanogenesis.A central composite design (CCD) and response surface regression analysis (RSREG) were employed to determine the optimum conditions and interaction effects of chloroform and acetylene in terms of inhibition efficiency,production of volatile fatty acids and molar ratio of propionic acid to acetic acid.Chloroform had significant effect on enhancing the production of VFA (F = 121.3;p<0.01),and acetylene promoted the inhibition efficiency (F = 99.15;p<0.05) more effectively than chloroform (F = 9.72;p>0.05).In addition,a maximum molar ratio of propionic acid to acetic acid of 1.208 was estimated under the optimum conditions of chloroform concentration of 9.05 mg/kg and acetylene concentration of 3.6×10-3 (V/V).Hence,methanogens in the wastes can be inhibited while the stabilization process of the biodegradable wastes can still work well,as propionic acid generated during the inhibition process could hardly be utilized by methanogens.     

Advances in methane emissions from agricultural sources: Part I. Accounting and mitigation

Methane is one of the major greenhouse gases (GHGs) and agriculture is recognized as its primary emitter. Methane accounting is a prerequisite for developing effective agriculture mitigation strategies. In this review, methane accounting methods and research status for various agricultural emission source including rice fields, animal enteric fermentation and livestock and poultry manure management were overview, and the influencing factors of each emission source were analyzed and discussed. At...     

Characteristics of methane emission from wetland rice–duck complex ecosystem

The effects of rice–duck complex ecosystem on methane emission were investigated through two experimental approaches of plot and field experiments in subtropical region of China. Compared with conventional rice fields, the rice–duck ecological planting and breeding model significantly decreased the methane emission from paddy fields. Methane emission flux from rice–duck complex ecosystem presented distinct diurnal and seasonal variations. The diurnal variation in methane emission flux was basically consistent with daily temperature change, and methane emission flux reached a peak from 12 noon to 2 p.m. But the seasonal variation patterns of methane emission flux were not completely consistent between early rice and late rice. The peak of methane emission flux for early rice and late rice, respectively, appeared in the young panicle differentiation stage and the full tillering stage. Moreover, the seasonal fluctuation range of methane emission flux from early rice was smaller than that from late rice, and the total amount of methane emission from late rice also significantly higher than that from early rice. These results clearly indicate the possibility of reducing methane emission under wetland rice–duck complex ecosystem.     

施用高效氮肥对农田N2O的减排效果及经济效益分析

收集高效氮肥N2O排放资料,利用整合分析法分析高效氮肥对N2O的减排效果.稳定性氮肥排放的N2O是普通肥料的0.66倍,减排效果显著;包膜缓释氮肥N2O排放量为普通氮肥的0.95倍,无显著减排效果.若将全国范围的普通氮肥替换为稳定性氮肥、且用N量不变时,稳定性氮肥在中国农田的N2O减排潜力均值为1.03×108 kgN/a,碳排放交易收入为16.86亿元/a;根据现有市场上稳定性氮肥的价格,每亩地每季补贴4.9元,碳排放交易收入和稳定性氮肥成本增加量相抵.由于稳定性氮肥能有效提高N利用率,保证农作物吸N总量不变时减少用N量,稳定性肥料N利用率提高8个百分点时,N2O减排经济效益(即碳排放交易收入-稳定性氮肥成本增加量)为94亿元/a.     

Effect of a late season urea fertilization on methane emission from a rice field in Italy

The application of NH₄⁺-based fertilizers is a common practice in rice production. The immediate effect of a late season urea application on the processes involved in CH₄ emission from a rice field was investigated on sandy loam located in the valley of River Po at Vercelli, northern Italy, and planted with rice (Oryza sativa, type japonica, variety Koral). Urea, applied at a rate of 50 kg N ha⁻¹ on the 75th day after flooding, significantly stimulated both CH₄ production and CH₄ oxidation. During the following 9 days, the rates of CH₄ production and CH₄ oxidation in the 0–3 cm soil layer increased by 24–52 and 18–41%, respectively, of the fertilized plot compared to the unfertilized control plot. Methane oxidation on roots was also stimulated by urea, indicated by shorter lag times. Porewater concentrations of CH₄ in the 0–6 cm soil layer increased with time and soil depth, but were not affected by fertilization with urea. Urea application also exhibited little impact on CH₄ emission. During the 7 days following fertilization, urea only slightly reduced the CH₄ flux. Ammonium originating from urea hydrolysis was completely depleted from the porewater within 3 days, mainly due to plant uptake. Fertilizer application did also not affect the contribution of CH₄ oxidation to the net flux of CH₄, determined by measuring δ¹³CH₄ and by inhibition of CH₄ oxidation. The absence of any effect of urea on net CH₄ emission in this study was presumably caused by the rapid depletion of urea, the counterbalance between the increase of CH₄ production and the increase of CH₄ oxidation after fertilization, and methanogenesis in deeper soil layers.     

不同稻秆处理方式下双季稻温室气体排放通量研究

通过田间试验研究了不同稻秆处理方式下(常规处理(移出稻田+NPK),直接还田(RS)+NPK,原位焚烧还田(BIS)+NPK)双季稻温室气体排放.结果表明,相对于常规处理,RS+NPK处理显著增加CH4排放与减少N2O排放,BIS+NPK处理降低水稻生长季稻田CH4;RS+NPK和BIS+NPK处理稻田N2O排放差异并不显著(P>0.05);早、晚稻秸秆焚烧过程中产生的CH4与焚烧处理田间CH4排放相当,焚烧过程产生的N2O分别为BIS+NPK处理早、晚稻生长季N2O排放总量的90.1%和53.4%,贡献极大.不同处理温室效应表现为RS+NPK>NPK>BIS+NPK,单位产量的温室效应表现为秸秆直接还田处理最高,秸秆原位焚烧处理最低.     

近地层大气臭氧对水稻光合作用影响的数值模拟

利用TE 4 9C型臭氧自动观测仪测定了常熟稻田上方O3 浓度 ,并利用OTC 1型开顶式气室测定了O3 浓度对水稻叶片光合速率的影响 .在此基础上建立了O3 对水稻冠层光合影响的数值模式 ,模式具有较高分辨率和准确度 .观测表明 :O3 浓度逐时值变化幅度在 0～ 16 0× 10 -9之间 ,而日平均值变化仅在 5× 10 -9～ 6 0× 10 -9范围内 ;稻田上方O3 存在高浓度单峰型和低浓度平缓型两种典型日变化 .数值分析表明 :全晴天时高浓度单峰型对光合日总量影响较大 ;随日总辐射量加大臭氧浓度增加对光合作用影响程度加强 .全生育期积分表明 :受O3 影响水稻光合作用总损失量约为 11 6 % .     

Policy and technological constraints to implementation of greenhouse gas mitigation options in agriculture

A recent assessment of agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has demonstrated significant potential for mitigation, but suggests that the full mitigation will not be realized due to significant barriers to implementation. In this paper, we explore the constraints and barriers to implementation important for GHG mitigation in agriculture. We also examine how climate and non-climate policy in different regions of the world has affected agricultural GHG emissions in the recent past, and how it may affect emissions and mitigation implementation in the future. We examine the links between mitigation and adaptation and drives for sustainable development and the potential for agricultural GHG mitigation in the future.We describe how some countries have initiated climate and non-climate policies believed to have direct effects or synergistic effects on mitigating GHG emissions from agriculture. Global sharing of innovative technologies for efficient use of land resources and agricultural chemicals, to eliminate poverty and malnutrition, will significantly mitigate GHG emissions from agriculture.Previous studies have shown that as less than 30% of the total biophysical potential for agricultural GHG mitigation might be achieved by 2030, due to price- and non-price-related barriers to implementation. The challenge for successful agricultural GHG mitigation will be to remove these barriers by implementing creative policies. Identifying policies that provide benefits for climate, as well as for aspects of economic, social and environmental sustainability, will be critical for ensuring that effective GHG mitigation options are widely implemented in the future.     

Effect of elevated tropospheric ozone on methane and nitrous oxide emission from rice soil in north India

Physiological changes in crop plants in response to the elevated tropospheric ozone (O₃) may alter N and C cycles in soil. This may also affect the atmosphere-biosphere exchange of radiatively important greenhouse gases (GHGs), e.g. methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) from soil. A study was carried out during July to November of 2007 and 2008 in the experimental farm of Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi to assess the effects of elevated tropospheric ozone on methane and nitrous oxide emissions from rice (Oryza sativa L.) soil. Rice crop was grown in open top chambers (OTC) under elevated ozone (EO), non-filtered air (NF), charcoal filtered air (CF) and ambient air (AA). Seasonal mean concentrations of O₃ were 4.3 ± 0.9, 26.2 ± 1.9, 59.1 ± 4.2 and 27.5 ± 2.3 ppb during year 2007 and 5.9 ± 1.1, 37.2 ± 2.5, 69.7 ± 3.9 and 39.2 ± 1.8 ppb during year 2008 for treatments CF, NF, EO and AA, respectively. Cumulative seasonal CH₄ emission reduced by 29.7% and 40.4% under the elevated ozone (EO) compared to the non-filtered air (NF), whereas the emission increased by 21.5% and 16.7% in the charcoal filtered air (CF) in 2007 and 2008, respectively. Cumulative seasonal emission of N₂O ranged from 47.8 mg m⁻² in elevated ozone to 54.6 mg m⁻² in charcoal filtered air in 2007 and from 46.4 to 62.1 mg m⁻² in 2008. Elevated ozone reduced grain yield by 11.3% and 12.4% in 2007 and 2008, respectively. Global warming potential (GWP) per unit of rice yield was the least under elevated ozone levels. Dissolved organic C content of soil was lowest under the elevated ozone treatment. Decrease in availability of substrate i.e., dissolved organic C under elevated ozone resulted in a decline in GHG emissions. Filtration of ozone from ambient air increased grain yield and growth parameters of rice and emission of GHGs.     

焚烧麦杆对稻田CH4 和N2O 排放的影响

采用3 种麦杆处理方式(不还田、均匀混施和原位焚烧)进行田间试验,观测稻田CH₄ 和N₂O 的排放情况,以探讨原位焚烧麦杆对稻田CH₄ 和N₂O 排放的影响.结果表明,与不还田处理相比,原位焚烧显著增加稻田CH₄ 排放量,同时显著减少稻田N₂O 排放量;与均匀混施处理相比,原位焚烧显著减少稻田CH₄ 排放量,二者的N₂O 排放量无明显差异.     

Capital assets and institutional constraints to implementation of greenhouse gas mitigation options in agriculture

Agriculture is one of the major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. It accounts for approximately 15% of the total global anthropogenic emissions of GHGs. Emissions could be twice as much if indirect emissions are also taken into the consideration. However, unlike other high emitting sectors such as transport or energy, agriculture is potentially a significant carbon “sink”. It has high technical potential as a carbon sink and if tapped, can substantially enhance global sequestration efforts. The technical potential, however, may not translate into actual GHG reduction because of the capital assets and institutional constraints faced by the smallholder farmers in the developing countries. In this paper we develop a capital assets based framework of physical, financial, social, human and natural barriers to agricultural carbon mitigation initiatives and through analysis of current initiatives, we set out policy based options to reduce each of these barriers. Fundamentally, barrier removal will entail designing agricultural carbon mitigation initiatives in collaboration with farmer communities, through strengthening local institutions, understanding land tenure and natural resource cultures, ensuring legitimacy and equity in payments and fast tracking training and information. We provide a framework that simultaneously aids the dual objectives of alleviating poverty in the poor farming communities of developing countries and lowering global greenhouse gas emissions.     

油气田开发建设对土壤的影响与减缓措施

油气田开发和建设过程中排放的废水、废气和固体废物直接或间接进入土壤环境中,会对土壤生态系统产生影响,本文对油田开发污染物进入土壤的途径及其在土壤上吸附／解吸的规律的分析,提出相应的油田环境的保护和治理措施。     

Methane emissions from rice fields under continuous straw return in the middle-lower reaches of the Yangtze River

A three-year experiment was conducted in the middle-lower reaches of the Yangtze River in China to study the influence of continuous wheat straw return during the rice season and continuous rice straw return in wheat on methane (CH 4 ) emissions from rice fields in which, the rice-wheat rotation system is the most dominant planting pattern. The field experiment was initiated in October 2009 and has continued since the wheat-growing season of that year. The analyses for the present study were conducted in the second (2011) and third (2012) rice growing seasons. Four treatments, namely, the continuous return of wheat straw and rice straw in every season (WR), of rice straw but no wheat straw return (R), of wheat straw but no rice straw return (W) and a control with no straw return (CK), were laid out in a randomized split-plot design. The total seasonal CH 4 emissions ranged from 107.4 to 491.7 kg/ha (2011) and 160.3 to 909.6 kg/ha (2012). The increase in CH 4 emissions for treatments WR and W were 289% and 230% in the second year and 185% and 225% in the third year, respectively, in relation to CK. We observed less methane emissions in the treatment R than in CK by 14%-43%, but not statistically significant. Treatment R could increase rice productivity while no more CH 4 emission occurs. The difference in the total CH 4 emissions mainly related to a difference in the methane flux rate during the first 30-35 days after transplant in the rice growing season, which was caused by the amount of dissolved oxygen in paddy water and the amount of reducible soil materials.     

Effect of bio-column composed of aged refuse on methane abatement – A novel configuration of biological oxidation in refuse landfill

An experimental bio-column composed of aged refuse was installed around the exhaust pipe as a new way to mitigate methane in refuse landfill.One of the objectives of this work was to assess the effect of aged refuse thickness in bio-column on reducing CH 4 emissions.Over the study period,methane oxidation was observed at various thicknesses,5 cm (small size),10 cm (middle size) and 15 cm (large size),representing one to three times of pipeline diameters.The middle and large size both showed over 90% methane conversion,and the highest methane conversion rate of above 95% occurred in the middle-size column cell.Michaelis-Menten equation addressed the methanotrophs diffusion in different layers of the bio-columns.Maximum methanotrophic activity (V max) measured at the three thicknesses ranged from 6.4 × 10 3 to 15.6 × 10 3 units,and the half-saturation value (K M) ranged from 0.85% to 1.67%.Both the highest V max and K M were observed at the middle-size of the bio-column,as well as the largest methanotrophs population,suggesting a significant efficiency of methane mitigation happened in the optimum zone with greatest affinity and methanotrophic bacteria activities.Therefore,bio-column is a potential style for methane abatement in landfill,and the aged refuse both naturally formed and artificially placed in the column plays a critical role in CH 4 emission.     

洱海流域稻鸭共作对稻田温室气体排放和水稻产量的影响

稻季是水旱轮作生态系统温室气体排放的主要时期,探索有效措施实现稻季温室气体减排和水稻增产已成为当前研究的热点.稻鸭共作是减少稻季温室气体排放的有效措施之一,而确定合理的稻鸭共作密度对确保洱海流域水稻产量基础上实现温室气体减排具有重要意义.该研究通过设置不同稻鸭共作密度试验,采取密闭静态箱—气相色谱法研究了稻鸭共作对温室气体排放规律、排放量及全球增温潜势(GWP)的影响.结果表明:水稻生育期,CH_4和N_2O均在分蘖期和结实期出现排放峰;CH_4排放通量、累计排放量和总排放量大小均为常规处理(CT)低密度鸭处理(LDD)高密度鸭处理(HDD)空白处理(CK),而N_2O为HDDLDDCTCK.与CT相比,CK、LDD、HDD的CH_4排放总量分别降低45%、18%、25%,N_2O排放总量分别降低8%、增加11%和37%,温室气体综合增温潜势分别降低41%、14%、17%.田面水DO、NH~+_4-N、NO~-_3-N及土壤温度是引起温室气体CH_4和N_2O排放差异的主要因素.不同处理的水稻产量为LDDCKCTHDD.合理的稻鸭共作密度降低CH_4排放,增加N_2O排放,减缓全球增温潜势,提高了水稻产量.兼顾水稻产量和温室气体减排效果,LDD处理综合效益最好.