Self‐monitoring and performance appraisal: rating outcomes in project teams

Two studies examined the relationship between ratee self‐monitoring and performance appraisal in project teams using three appraisal sources: self, peer, and supervisor. Study 1, a laboratory study, found that high self‐monitoring (HSM) subjects produced self‐ratings significantly higher than their low self‐monitoring (LSM) counterparts. Further, higher agreement among sources occurred for LSM than for HSM subjects. HSMs' tendency to portray themselves differently to various audiences resulted in less rating convergence across sources. Study 2, employing project teams in five corporations, replicated the convergence finding. Implications for use of various sources of appraisal and for understanding the role of self‐monitoring in performance appraisal are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Improving mental health status and coping abilities for long‐term unemployed youth using cognitive‐behaviour therapy based training interventions

This paper reports on immediate and long‐term well‐being outcomes for a group of long‐term unemployed youth who attended specially devised training courses based on the cognitive‐behaviour therapy (CBT) model. The courses were aimed specifically at improving the mental health of participants, and providing them with coping skills to deal better with the negative consequences of prolonged unemployment. Results for participants were compared with a waiting‐list, control group. Outcomes investigated were well‐being (psychological distress, self‐esteem, positive and negative affect), and coping behaviours (social support, self care, recreation, and cognitive coping strategies). Behavioural plasticity effects were also examined by comparing outcomes for participants who had higher distress scores prior to the course with participants who reported lower scores at that time. Immediate benefits were identified for both mental health and coping behaviours, and many of these benefits persisted into the long term. Participants with higher levels of pre‐course psychological distress improved more than their low distressed counterparts, supporting the behavioural plasticity hypothesis. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Merit pay raises and organization‐based self‐esteem

We developed and tested a theory of the relationship between merit pay raises and organization‐based self‐esteem (OBSE) in a longitudinal study of hospital employees. We predicted that the positive relationship between merit pay raise size and OBSE would be stronger when pay‐for‐performance (PFP) perceptions were high and predicted further that this interaction would be stronger among older employees. As predicted, merit pay raises were not related to OBSE levels for younger employees, but, among older employees, larger merit raises increased OBSE when PFP perceptions were high and decreased OBSE when PFP perceptions were low. Implications of the study for merit pay theory and practice are addressed. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Janus face of paternalistic leaders: Authoritarianism,benevolence, subordinates' organization‐based self‐esteem,and performance

We investigated how the two components of paternalistic leadership, namely authoritarianism and benevolence, jointly influenced work performance through their impacts on organization‐based self‐esteem (OBSE). Using a sample of 686 supervisor–subordinate dyads collected from a manufacturing firm in the People's Republic of China, we found that OBSE mediated the negative relationship between authoritarian leadership on one hand and subordinate task performance and organizational citizenship behavior toward the organization (OCBO) on the other. We also found that the negative effect of authoritarian leadership on subordinate OBSE, task performance, and OCBO was weaker when supervisors exhibited higher levels of leader benevolence. Also, OBSE mediated the joint effect of authoritarian leadership and benevolent leadership on subordinate task performance and OCBO. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐interest: defining and understanding a human motive

This paper explores the concept of self‐interest. Taking a multi‐disciplinary perspective, we discuss and critique various definitions of this phenomenon. We argue that self‐interest is an important human motive. However, we also emphasize that other human motives exist. These include empathy toward others and adherence to moral duty. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐management perceptions and practices: a structural equations analysis

Self‐management has many potential benefits for organizations. However, application of self‐management to organizational settings has been hampered by lack of theoretical frameworks for self‐management specifically applied to work settings and by a corresponding dearth of psychometrically sound measures. This paper presents results of structural equations modeling of measures of self‐management anchored in a revised version of the Brief and Aldag (1981) model of the self in organizational behavior. Using confirmatory factor analysis procedures (CFA), two a priori measures of self‐management are examined. Results point to two relatively distinct facets of self‐management, each of them composed of four relatively independent subscales. Finally, a structural model evidencing a pervasive set of relationships between self‐management perceptions and self‐management practices is provided. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

General self‐efficacy and self‐esteem: toward theoretical and empirical distinction between correlated self‐evaluations

To test whether general self‐efficacy and self‐esteem relate differently to motivational and affective constructs, we collected data from samples in academic and work settings. Results suggest that general self‐efficacy is more highly related to motivational variables than is self‐esteem, whereas self‐esteem is more highly related to affective variables than is general self‐efficacy, as hypothesized. Furthermore, results support the notion that motivational and affective states differentially mediate the relationships of general self‐efficacy and self‐esteem with task performance. These results confirm the theoretical distinction between general self‐efficacy and self‐esteem and suggest that failure to distinguish between them might exact a price in terms of precision, validity, and understanding of determinants of performance. Implications for research and practice in organizations are discussed. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐efficacy changes in groups: effects of diversity,leadership, and group climate

Self‐efficacy belief is a significant predictor of behavioral choices in terms of goal setting, the amount of effort devoted to a particular task, and actual performance. This study conceives of formation and change of self‐efficacy as a social and context‐dependent process. We hypothesized that different group factors (discretionary and ambient group stimuli) influence changes in members' self‐efficacy through differing routes (individual‐level and cross‐level processes). We tested our hypotheses using data from individuals in 169 training groups who attended a 5‐day workshop designed to increase participants' job‐search skills and efficacy. Specifically, we examined the degree of change in participants' job‐search efficacy before and after the workshop. The results showed that (a) membership diversity in education was positively related to increases in job‐search efficacy, (b) supportive leadership contributed to job‐search efficacy at the individual level of analysis with no cross‐level effects, and (c) open group climate contributed to job‐search efficacy through both individual‐level and cross‐level processes. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Work characteristics,challenge appraisal,creativity, and proactive behavior: A multi‐level study

Work characteristics such as time pressure and job control can be experienced as a challenge that is positively associated with performance‐related behaviors. Using experience‐sampling data from 149 employees, we examined the relationships between these work characteristics and creativity and proactive behavior on a daily level. Results from multilevel analyses indicate that time pressure and job control are perceived as challenging, and that challenge appraisal in turn is related to daily creativity and proactive behavior. Furthermore, cross‐level mediation analyses revealed that daily work characteristics act as the mechanism underlying the relationships between chronic work characteristics and challenge appraisal. This study supports the view of time pressure as a challenge‐related stressor that leads to favorable outcomes. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐determination theory and work motivation

Cognitive evaluation theory, which explains the effects of extrinsic motivators on intrinsic motivation, received some initial attention in the organizational literature. However, the simple dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation made the theory difficult to apply to work settings. Differentiating extrinsic motivation into types that differ in their degree of autonomy led to self‐determination theory, which has received widespread attention in the education, health care, and sport domains. This article describes self‐determination theory as a theory of work motivation and shows its relevance to theories of organizational behavior. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of self‐emotion,counterpart emotion,and counterpart behavior on negotiator behavior: a comparison of individual‐level and dyad‐level dynamics

This study expands the negotiation literature by examining how negotiator behavior is predicted by various emotions felt by the negotiators and their counterparts and by counterpart negotiation behavior. Using hierarchical linear modeling, we also compare individual‐ and dyad‐level processes that lead to negotiator behavior and outcomes. The results from a dyadic negotiation simulation showed that both the valence and agency of negotiator and counterpart emotions need to be considered to understand the roles of emotion in negotiator behavior. Negotiators tend to reciprocate counterparts' integrating, compromising, and dominating behaviors, but they also offer complementary (or matching) responses to the counterparts' dominating and yielding behaviors. Integrating behavior was more dependent on dyad‐level interpersonal dynamics than were the other behaviors. The comparison of negotiator‐level and dyad‐level results suggests that negotiation needs to be understood in the context of collective exchanges as well as individual‐level cognitive processes. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐leadership in the context of part‐time teleworking

Employees who work periodically in both a traditional office and home office (part‐time teleworkers) face opportunities and risks related to both working locations. As self‐leadership might play a crucial role in this context, we examined within‐person variations in self‐leadership (self‐reward, self‐punishment, self‐cueing, self‐goal setting, imagining successful performance, and evaluation of beliefs and assumptions) on home days and office days. In a typical workweek, 195 part‐time teleworkers filled out daily surveys (729 days), and we examined the relationship between working location (office and home) and self‐leading behavior as well as the mediating role of autonomy. Finally, we investigated whether self‐leading behavior relates to ego depletion and work satisfaction at the end of the working day. Multilevel analyses revealed that part‐time teleworkers reported higher use of self‐reward, self‐goal setting, and visualization of successful performance on home days than on office days. The association between working location and self‐reward, self‐goal setting, visualization of successful performance, and evaluation of beliefs and assumptions was mediated by autonomy. There were no indirect effects of working location on ego depletion through self‐leadership. However, we found that on home days, part‐time teleworkers were more satisfied with their job at the end of the workday through self‐goal setting.     

Perceived organizational support and affective commitment: the mediating role of organization‐based self‐esteem in the context of job insecurity

Research on the relationship between perceived organizational support (POS) and affective organizational commitment (AC) has primarily adopted a social exchange perspective. In this study we considered complementary socio‐emotional explanations of the POS–AC relationship. We focused on the mediating role of organization‐based self‐esteem (OBSE) and tested competing models of the POS–OBSE‐AC relationship separately on data from two Korean banks that experienced different levels of downsizing following the 1997 Korean financial crisis. We further extended the analysis by examining the extent to which the relationship between POS and OBSE and AC, respectively, was affected by employees' perceived sense of job insecurity in the two banks. The results showed that OBSE was a significant mediator of the POS–AC relationship in both organizations. POS, however, also retained a strong independent direct effect on commitment. Moreover, as expected, perceived job insecurity tended to attenuate the POS–OBSE relationship, but augmented the direct relationship between perceived organizational support and affective commitment. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pre‐training perceived social self‐efficacy accentuates the effects of a cross‐cultural coping orientation program: Evidence from a longitudinal field experiment

Analyzing additional data from a longitudinal field experiment, the present research investigate whether pre‐training perceived social self‐efficacy (PSSE) may moderate cross‐cultural training effectiveness. On the basis of the interactionist perspective, we hypothesized that sojourners with high pre‐training PSSE would benefit more from a cross‐cultural coping orientation program, called “Realistic Orientation Program for Entry Stress” (ROPES), than sojourners with low pre‐training PSSE. As a result, the treatment effects (the ROPES program over the control program—a traditional cross‐cultural orientation program) would be more positive for high‐PSSE sojourners than for low‐PSSE sojourners. Seventy‐two incoming graduate students from East Asia entering a large US public university were randomly assigned to either a ROPES program or a control program, and were assessed pre‐entry and multiple times post‐entry. The results strongly supported our predictions, as the hypothesized PSSE × Treatment interactions were observed on a comprehensive set of training outcomes based on multisource data. Theoretical and practical implications were discussed. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐monitoring personality trait at work: An integrative narrative review and future research directions

In this narrative review, we provide an overview of the self‐monitoring literature as it applies to the workplace context. Our starting point to the review is a meta‐analysis of self‐monitoring literature published in 2002 by Day, Schleicher, Unckless, and Hiller. After providing an overview of the theoretical basis of self‐monitoring and its measurement, we present a summary of the broad literature on self‐monitoring to examine the implications of self‐monitoring for employees and organizations. Based on our review, we identify the main outcomes of self‐monitoring as well as findings of the literature treating self‐monitoring as a moderator. We provide evidence that self‐monitoring has potential downsides, which would benefit from further investigation. We conclude our review by identifying important potential future research directions.     

A meta‐analytic comparison of self‐reported and other‐reported organizational citizenship behavior

Given the common use of self‐ratings and other‐ratings (e.g., supervisor or coworker) of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), the purpose of this meta‐analysis was to evaluate the extent to which these rating sources provide comparable information. The current study's results provided three important lines of evidence supporting the use and construct‐related validity of self‐rated OCB. The meta‐analysis of mean differences demonstrated that the mean difference in OCB ratings is actually quite small between self‐ and other‐raters. Importantly, the difference between self‐ and other‐raters was influenced by neither the response scale (i.e., agreement vs. frequency) nor the use of antithetical/reverse‐worded items on OCB scales. The meta‐analysis of correlations showed that self‐ and other‐ratings are moderately correlated but that self–other convergence is higher when antithetical items are not used and when agreement response scales are used. In addition, self‐ratings and supervisor‐ratings showed significantly more convergence than self‐ratings and coworker‐ratings. Finally, an evaluation of self‐rated and other‐rated OCB nomological networks showed that although self‐rated and other‐rated OCBs have similar patterns of relationships with common correlates, other‐rated OCB generally contributed negligible incremental variance to correlates and only contributed appreciable incremental variance to other‐rated behavioral variables (e.g., task performance and counterproductive work behavior). Implications and future research directions are discussed, particularly regarding the need to establish a nomological network for other‐rated OCB. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sense‐making of employment: on whether and why people read employment advertising

This paper suggests a process of sense‐making of “employment“ and identifies employment ads to be useful agents in this process. It is suggested that individuals read ads in surveillance of the employment market in addition to reading them to search for employment vacancies. Employment ads are suggested to be a forum for organizational self‐presentation that offers current information about the employment exchange as it is viewed by employers. Two exploratory studies are presented to support the thesis. Study 1 is an inductive survey of people's reading of employment ads, showing that people read ads even if they are not looking for a job because they view ads as a source of insight about the employment environment. Study 2 reviews the content of employment ads, showing them to convey prevailing elements of the idea of employment, namely that employment is an exchange of employee skills and responsibilities for organizational intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Recognizing the individual need for sense‐making of employment, and identifying employment ads as a source of information about employment, opens up a new area for research and practice on recruiting, organizational self‐presentation, and sense‐making. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Balancing work and family: a field study of multi‐dimensional,multi‐role work‐family conflict

Little is known about the effectiveness of family‐friendly policies (FFPs) in reducing interrole conflicts involving work and family. The present study examined the influence of FFPs, work‐family culture, and family characteristics on salient job outcomes, and multiple dimensions of work‐family conflict (WFC) and family‐work conflict (FWC). Results from a survey of 564 workers, indicate that FFPs exert minimal effects on felt conflict, and that a positive work‐family culture and family support may be more instrumental in helping employees balance work and home roles. Findings also suggest that sources of conflict varied among workers, as did the mechanisms used to address WFC and FWC. This study underscores the importance of examining WFC as a multi‐dimensional phenomenon affecting employees in a variety of family structures, as well as considering the impact of FFPs in conjunction with work‐family culture. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Weekly work–school conflict,sleep quality,and fatigue: Recovery self‐efficacy as a cross‐level moderator

This study employed a weekly diary method among a sample of 74 Midwestern college student workers in order to examine the within‐person relationships between work–school conflict, sleep quality, and fatigue over five weeks. Further, recovery self‐efficacy was proposed as a cross‐level moderator of the relation between sleep quality and fatigue. Results from multilevel analyses demonstrated that weekly work–school conflict was negatively related to weekly sleep quality and positively related to end‐of‐week fatigue, with sleep quality partially mediating the relation between work–school conflict and fatigue. These findings enhance understanding of the process by which work–school conflict contributes to college student workers' strain on a weekly basis. Additionally, student workers with low recovery self‐efficacy demonstrated a negative relation between sleep quality and fatigue; however, this relation did not exist for student workers with high recovery self‐efficacy. This finding suggests recovery self‐efficacy as an important resource that may reduce the association between poor sleep quality (as a result of work–school conflict) and fatigue. The current findings provide important theoretical and practical implications for researchers, organizations, and college institutions as a whole. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.