Air pollution and health: correlation or causality? The case of the relationship between exposure to particles and cardiopulmonary mortality

Many epidemiologic studies have observed, in different contexts, a slight short-term relationship between particles in air and cardiopulmonary mortality, even when air quality standards were respected. The causality of this relationship is important to public health because of the number of people exposed. Our aim was to make a critical assessment of the arguments used in 15 reviews of published studies. We explain the importance of distinguishing validity from causality, and we systematically analyze the various criteria of judgment within the context of ecologic time studies. Our conclusion is that the observed relationship is valid and that most of the causality criteria are respected. It is hoped that the level of exposure of populations to these particles be reduced. In Europe, acting at the root of the problem, in particular on diesel emissions, will also enable the reduction of levels of other pollutants that can have an impact on health. In the United States, the situation is more complicated, as particles are mainly secondary. It is also essential to continue with research to become better acquainted with the determinants of personal global exposures and to better understand the toxic role of the various physicochemical factors of the particles.     

SIMAIR—Evaluation tool for meeting the EU directive on air pollution limits

Almost all Swedish cities need to determine air pollution levels—especially PM10—close to major streets. SIMAIR is an internet tool that can be used by all Swedish municipalities to assess PM10, NO₂, CO and benzene levels and how they compare to the EU directive. SIMAIR is delivered to the municipalities with all required input data pre-loaded and is meant to be used prior to decisions if and where, monitoring campaigns are required. The system includes a road and vehicle database with emission factors and a model to calculate non-tailpipe PM10 emissions. Regional and urban background contributions are pre-calculated and stored as hourly values on a 1×1 km² grid. The local contribution is calculated by the user, selecting either an open road or a street canyon environment.A comparison between measured and simulated concentrations in four street locations shows that SIMAIR is able to calculate statistics of yearly mean values, 90-percentile and 98-percentile daily mean values and the number of days exceeding the limit value that are well within ±50% that EU requires for model estimates of yearly mean values. In comparison, all values except one are within ±25% which is the quality objective for fixed measurements according to the EU directive.The SIMAIR model system is also able to separate the percentual contribution of the long-range transport from outside the city, the city contribution and the local contribution from the traffic of an individual street.     

Trace elements exposure influences proximate body composition and antioxidant enzyme activities of the species tilapia and catfish in Burullus Lake—Egypt: human risk assessment for the consumers

The trace elements concentration in the fish estimates the contamination degree in the aquatic environment. These toxic trace elements are transported into the human through the consumption of polluted fish. This study estimated the effect of Cd, Hg, Pb, As, and Al on tilapia species and catfish Clarias gariepinus (six for each species of fish) inhabiting Burullus Lake—Egypt 30° 33′–31° 08′ E and 30° 22′–31° 35′ N. The highest Pb concentrations recorded in the muscle of C. gariepinus 2.29 ± 0.29 μg/g while S. galilaeus was estimated the lowest Hg concentration of 0.54 ± 0.02 μg/g which indicated the presence of contaminants exceeded the limits permitted by FAO/WHO and EC. The maximum mean carbohydrate, lipid, and protein recorded in O. niloticus 18.66, 16.33, and 58.16 mg/g, respectively; moisture in O. aureus 67.33%; and ash 16.41% in O. niloticus. The lowest amount of carbohydrate was recorded in the T. zillii 14.1 mg/g, lipid, and ash in C. gariepinus 11.65 mg/g and 3.375%, respectively. Protein and moisture in the S. galilaeus were 53.75 mg/g and 60.75%, respectively. The results recorded a marked insignificant (P > 0.05) decrease in CAT, GR, and GPx activity in O. niloticus. GSH and SOD activity was an insignificant (P > 0.05) decrease in C. gariepinus. The results concluded that the trace elements concentrations exceed the maximum permissible limits recommended in fish samples set by Egypt, FAO, WHO, and EC. The estimated weekly intake of all elements through consumption of studied fish species inhabiting Burullus Lake by a child (15 kg) in Egypt is well above the PTWI recommended by FAO/WHO, whereas it is well below the PTWI for human consumption by young people (40 kg) and adult person (70 kg), at least in respect of residual levels of studied elements excluding Cd and Hg. Thus, for consumer protection, these fish species are unsafe and have hazardous effects for children, and about youth and adult consumption, caution must be taken to consider individuals eating significant amounts of fish.

     

Air chemistry measurements in the lower atmosphere over Sweden—Data evaluation

Measurements of sulfur dioxide, sulfate in aerosols and light scattering coefficient have been made over Sweden up to 3 km altitude with a small aircraft The transformation rate of SO₂ to sulfate in air masses carrying pollution from the European continent to Scandinavia estimated from observed data is 1.5 % h⁻¹ in summer and 0.9 % h⁻¹ in winter. The scale height for total sulfur is 1300 m for winter and 1600 m for summer seasons. The sulfate/light scattering ratio is near 0.1 g m⁻² i.e. about half of the optical effect is due to sulfate in aerosols.     

Planning and Coordination in the New Jersey — New York — Connecticut Air Quality Control Region

On April 16, 1970, the States of New Jersey, New York, and Connecticut designated the Interstate Sanitation Commission as the official Planning and Coordinating Agency for the Federally-designated New Jersey-New York-Connecticut Air Quality Control Region (a seventeen-county tri-state area). The Commission is the first such agency to function in this capacity.     

A reactive transport model for mercury fate in soil—application to different anthropogenic pollution sources

Soil systems are a common receptor of anthropogenic mercury (Hg) contamination. Soils play an important role in the containment or dispersion of pollution to surface water, groundwater or the atmosphere. A one-dimensional model for simulating Hg fate and transport for variably saturated and transient flow conditions is presented. The model is developed using the HP1 code, which couples HYDRUS-1D for the water flow and solute transport to PHREEQC for geochemical reactions. The main processes included are Hg aqueous speciation and complexation, sorption to soil organic matter, dissolution of cinnabar and liquid Hg, and Hg reduction and volatilization. Processes such as atmospheric wet and dry deposition, vegetation litter fall and uptake are neglected because they are less relevant in the case of high Hg concentrations resulting from anthropogenic activities. A test case is presented, assuming a hypothetical sandy soil profile and a simulation time frame of 50 years of daily atmospheric inputs. Mercury fate and transport are simulated for three different sources of Hg (cinnabar, residual liquid mercury or aqueous mercuric chloride), as well as for combinations of these sources. Results are presented and discussed with focus on Hg volatilization to the atmosphere, Hg leaching at the bottom of the soil profile and the remaining Hg in or below the initially contaminated soil layer. In the test case, Hg volatilization was negligible because the reduction of Hg²⁺ to Hg⁰ was inhibited by the low concentration of dissolved Hg. Hg leaching was mainly caused by complexation of Hg²⁺ with thiol groups of dissolved organic matter, because in the geochemical model used, this reaction only had a higher equilibrium constant than the sorption reactions. Immobilization of Hg in the initially polluted horizon was enhanced by Hg²⁺ sorption onto humic and fulvic acids (which are more abundant than thiols). Potential benefits of the model for risk management and remediation of contaminated sites are discussed.     

Is the bone tissue of ring-billed gulls breeding in a pollution hotspot in the St. Lawrence River,Canada, impacted by halogenated flame retardant exposure?

Bone metabolism is a tightly regulated process that controls bone remodeling and repair in addition to maintaining circulating calcium and phosphate levels. It has been shown that certain organohalogen contaminants may adversely impact bone tissue metabolism and structure in wildlife species. However, exceedingly few studies have addressed the bone-related effects of organohalogen exposure in birds. The objective of the present study was to investigate the associations between markers of bone metabolism and structural integrity, and concentrations of established and current-use halogenated flame retardants (FRs) in ring-billed gulls (Larus delawarensis) nesting in a known FR hotspot area in the St. Lawrence River (Montreal, Canada). Bone metabolism was assessed using plasma calcium and inorganic phosphate levels, and alkaline phophatase activity, while bone (tarsus; trabecular and cortical sections) structure quality was examined using the percentage of bone tissue comprised in the total bone volume (Bv/Tv) and bone mineral density (BMD). Bv/Tv and BMD of the tarsus tended (not significant) to be positively associated with circulating calcium levels in male ring-billed gulls. Moreover, concentrations of FRs in male bird liver (brominated diphenyl ether (BDE)-154, -183, -201, and -209) and plasma (BDE-209) were negatively correlated with trabecular and cortical BMD of the tarsus. These correlative associations may suggest light demineralization of bone tissue associated with FR exposure in male ring-billed gulls. Present findings provide some evidence that bone (tarsus) metabolism and mineral composition may be impacted in high FR-exposed (mainly to PBDEs) ring-billed gulls breeding in the highly urbanized Montreal region.     

Impact of chemical exposure on the fish Pomatoschistus microps Krøyer (1838) in estuaries of the Portuguese Northwest coast

Juveniles of the estuarine fish Pomatoschistus microps were collected from autumn 2001 to summer 2002 in five stations along the Portuguese Northwest coast with different types and/or levels of environmental contamination: two reference sites with low levels of contamination (R1 and R2) and three differently impacted areas with higher levels of contamination. UI is located in an estuary under the influence of urban and industrial effluents, AA in a channel that receives intensive agriculture run-off and IE in a highly impacted industrial area. The activity of the enzymes acetylcholinesterase (AChE), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) and glutathione S-transferases (GST) were used as environmental biomarkers on P. microps. A significant seasonality effect on all the enzymatic activities was found, lower levels being registered in winter and spring on AChE, in autumn on LDH, and in winter on GST and EROD. The battery of biomarkers used was capable of discriminating sites with different types and/or levels of contamination, R1 and UI being the highest discriminated (91.7% and 66.7%, respectively). At R1 significantly lower levels of AChE and LDH were found, and EROD was significantly inducted at UI. Furthermore, IE presented higher levels of GST, and R2 and AA an inhibition of AChE in winter and spring. The results indicated that the battery of biomarkers used in this study seems to be a useful tool to distinguish between different types of environmental contamination in estuarine systems, and that P. microps is a suitable species to be used as bioindicator.     

Bioavailability of pollutants sets risk of exposure to biota and human population in reservoirs from Iguaçu River (Southern Brazil)

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - The Iguaçu River, located at the Southern part of Brazil, has a great socioeconomic and environmental importance due to its high endemic fish...     

Lead concentration increase in the hepatic and gill soluble fractions of European chub (Squalius cephalus)—an indicator of increased Pb exposure from the river water

Purpose

To examine if chronic exposure of feral fish to elevated Pb concentrations in the river water (up to 1???g?L^?1), which are still lower than European recommendations for dissolved Pb in surface waters (7.2???g?L^?1; EPCEU (Official J L 348:84, 2008)), would result in Pb accumulation in selected fish tissues.

Methods

Lead concentrations were determined by use of HR ICP-MS in the gill and hepatic soluble fractions of European chub (Squalius cephalus) caught in the Sutla River (Croatia?CSlovenia).

Results

At the site with increased dissolved Pb in the river water, soluble gill Pb levels (17.3???g?L^?1) were approximately 20 times higher compared to uncontaminated sites (0.85???g?L^?1), whereas the ratio between contaminated (18.1???g?L^?1) and uncontaminated sites (1.17???g?L^?1) was lower for liver (15.5). Physiological variability of basal Pb concentrations in soluble gill and hepatic fractions associated to fish size, condition, sex, or age was not observed, excluding the possibility that Pb increase in chub tissues at contaminated site could be the consequence of studied biotic parameters. However, in both tissues of Pb-exposed specimens, females accumulated somewhat more Pb than males, making female chubs potentially more susceptible to possible toxic effects.

Conclusions

The fact that Pb increase in gill and hepatic soluble fractions of the European chub was not caused by biotic factors and was spatially restricted to one site with increased dissolved Pb concentration in the river water points to the applicability of this parameter as early indicator of Pb exposure in monitoring of natural waters.     

The constitutively active Ah receptor (CA-AhR) mouse as a model for dioxin exposure – Effects in reproductive organs

The dioxin/aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) mediates most toxic effects of dioxins. In utero/lactational exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) impairs fetal/neonatal development and the developing male reproductive tract are among the most sensitive tissues. TCDD causes antiestrogenic responses in rodent mammary gland and uterus and in human breast cancer cell lines in the presence of estrogen. Also, more recently an estrogen-like effect of TCDD/AhR has been suggested in the absence of estrogen. A transgenic mouse expressing a constitutively active AhR (CA-AhR) was developed as a model mimicking a situation of constant exposure to AhR agonists. Male and female reproductive tissues of CA-AhR mice were characterized for some of the effects commonly seen after dioxin exposure. Sexually mature CA-AhR female mice showed decreased uterus weight, while an uterotrophic assay in immature CA-AhR mice resulted in increased uterus weight. In immature mice, both TCDD-exposure and CA-AhR increased the expression of the estrogen receptor target gene Cathepsin D. When co-treated with 17β-estradiol no increase in Cathepsin D levels occurred in either TCDD-exposed or CA-AhR mice. In sexually mature male CA-AhR mice the weights of testis and ventral prostate were decreased and the epididymal sperm reserve was reduced. The results of the present study are in accordance with previous studies on dioxin-exposed rodents in that an activated AhR (here CA-AhR) leads to antiestrogenic effects in the presence of estrogen, but to estrogenic effects in the absence of estrogen. These results suggest the CA-AhR mouse model as a useful tool for studies of continuous low activity of the AhR from early development, resembling the human exposure situation.     

The Estimation of Personal Exposures to Air Pollutants for a Community-Based Study of Health Effects in Asthmatics—Design and Results of Air Monitoring

In order to provide reliable pollutant and meteorological exposure estimates for an epidemiological study of asthmatics residing in two Houston neighborhoods, a dedicated three-tier air monitoring system was established. This consisted of fixed site ambient air monitoring at the center of each study area, a mobile van performing simultaneous indoor and outdoor measurements at selected residences of study participants, and a limited amount of direct personal monitoring for half of the participants. Monitored pollutants Included all criteria pollutant gases, as well as aeroallergens, aldehydes, TSP, and IP. Laboratory analyses provided concentrations of sulfate, nitrate, and trace elements. Continuous measurements of several meteorological parameters also were obtained. Intensive quality assurance and data validation efforts resulted in a high percentage of valid data for most pollutants. Ozone was the only measured pollutant that exceeded the NAAQS during the six-month (May to October) study period. The monitoring scheme allowed important pollutant concentration differences to be detected between day and night, between Indoors and outdoors, and among various indoor environments. The use of these monitoring data in combination with personal activity and household characteristics data to generate estimates of personal exposures for the epidemiological analysis will be described in a subsequent paper.     

Human exposure to fluoride from tea (Camellia sinensis) in a volcanic region—Canary Islands,Spain

Fluoride is highly present in the environment, especially in water and its derivatives. Excessive fluoride contribution to diet poses a health risk. Tea leaves accumulate fluoride and the consumption of tea (Camellia sinensis) could pose a risk to human by the excessive fluoride intake. Ninety tea samples were analyzed by potentiometry using a selective fluoride ion electrode. Mixed tea samples (2.82?±?1.11 mg/L) and black tea samples (2.28?±?0.79 mg/L) recorded the highest fluoride levels. The contribution of drinking water is important for increasing fluoride levels in teas. The daily consumption of two cups (250 mL per cup) of mixed and black teas prepared with La Laguna tap water does pose a health risk for children (4–8 years old) because of the high contribution percentages (74.4% and 63.6%, respectively) of the Tolerable Upper Intake Level set in 2.5 mg/day by the EFSA (European Food Safety Authority). A minor consumption in children (4–8 years old) and adults during pregnancy is advisable.

     

Occurrence and potential risk of triclosan in freshwaters of São Paulo,Brazil—the need for regulatory actions

Triclosan (TCS) is a broad-spectrum bactericide, highly toxic to algae, which is released into the environment via wastewater effluents. Predicted no-effect concentrations (PNECs) for aquatic biota have been proposed in the literature, varying from 1.4 to 1,550 ng/L, reflecting contradicting protection goals. In this work, six rivers in the state of São Paulo were monitored for TCS and caffeine, a tracer for untreated sewage disposal, over a period of more than 1 year. From 71 samples analyzed, 32 contained TCS at concentrations above the limit of quantification, ranging from 2.2 to 66 ng/L, corresponding to a frequency of exceedance of the lowest PNEC of 86 % (six out of seven sites). No correlation between TCS and caffeine was observed, and one of the reasons for that could be the different use patterns in the local populations. Given the high values found in the investigated rivers, TCS seems to be a strong candidate in the priority list of compounds that should be regulated in Brazil to preserve the aquatic environment.     

Resource allocation for mitigating regional air pollution–related mortality: A summertime case study for five cities in the United States

An important issue of regional air quality management is to allocate air quality management funds to maximize environmental and human health benefits. In this study, we use an innovative approach to tackle this air quality management issue. We develop an innovative resource allocation model that allows identification of air pollutant emission control strategies that maximize mortality avoidances subject to a resource constraint. We first present the development of the resource allocation model and then a case study to show how the model can be used to identify resource allocation strategies that maximize mortality avoidances for top five Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) (i.e., New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Dallas-Fort Worth, and Philadelphia) in the continental United States collectively. Given budget constraints in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Clean Air Act assessment, the results of the case study suggest that controls of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and primary carbon (PC) emissions from EPA Regions 2, 3, 5, 6, and 9 would have significant health benefits for the five selected cities collectively. Around 30,800 air pollution–related mortalities could be avoided during the selected 2-week summertime episode for the five cities collectively if the budget could be allocated based on the results of the resource allocation model. Although only five U.S. cities during a 2-week episode are considered in the case study, the resource allocation model can be used by decision-makers to plan air pollution mitigation strategies to achieve the most significant health benefits for other seasons and more cities over a region or the continental U.S.Implications: Effective allocations of air quality management resources are challenging and complicated, and it is desired to have a tool that can help decision-makers better allocate the funds to maximize health benefits of air pollution mitigation. An innovative resource allocation model developed in this study can help decision-makers identify the best resource allocation strategies for multiple cities collectively. The results of a case study suggest that controls of primary carbon and sulfur dioxides emissions would achieve the most significant health benefits for five selected cities collectively.