Sustainable livelihoods and people’s vulnerability in the face of coastal hazards

The present study investigates into the link between people’s vulnerability in the face of coastal hazards and sustainable livelihoods. It focuses on the town of Borongan in the Philippines and draws on questionnaire-based surveys and focus group discussions. This research shows that local fishermen are often compelled to go out fishing despite pending typhoon or storm surge to sustain the daily needs of their family. Its also demonstrates that the capacity of these people to protect themselves from the threat is constrained by poor and fragile livelihoods. In the event of a crisis, the study argues that people resort to a range of adjustments on their daily life which is rooted in the strength and diversity of their livelihoods. To reduce people’s vulnerability and enhance capacities to face coastal hazards, the study fosters Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction with special emphasis to sustainable livelihoods.     

Voluntary participation for sustainability transition: experiences from the ‘Commitment to Sustainable Development 2050’

Voluntary and active participation by a wide variety of actors is a prerequisite for successful societal transitions towards sustainability. The ‘Commitment to Sustainable Development 2050’ is a national-level initiative in Finland, aiming to mobilise a large-scale transition involving various societal actors through openly communicated commitments to concrete actions. Each commitment should focus on at least one of the eight nationally defined sustainability objectives connected to the global Sustainable Development Goals. This article assesses the implementation and the development needs of the commitment process based on a range of materials. The results highlight the importance of securing adequate resources for long-term coordination and continuous development of the commitment process, trust creation through long-term and open communication, and flexibility allowing for experimentation aimed at finding new modes of interaction between the public and private sectors.     

Our disappearing past: a GIS analysis of the vulnerability of coastal archaeological resources in California’s Santa Barbara Channel region

Coastal archaeological resources around the world often coincide with dense contemporary human populations and a rapidly changing physical environment. Projected sea level rise and urban expansion during the 21^st century threaten to destroy much of our global coastal archaeological heritage. In this study, we adapt an environmental vulnerability analysis to quantify the threats of modern development and sea level rise on archaeological sites in California’s Santa Barbara Channel region. Using spatial and statistical techniques, we create a Cultural Resource Vulnerability Index that combines environmental factors, current and projected urban footprints, and archaeological site positioning. We illustrate the importance of this method for targeting threatened archaeological sites for mitigation and salvage research. In the process, we highlight the significance of coastal archaeological sites for helping better understand contemporary environmental and cultural issues, underscoring the need to preserve or salvage these sites for their significant research value.     

Use of biomarkers in zooplankton for assessment of the ‘health status’ of marine and brackish environments: a short overview

The biomarker approach has been used for 25 years to study the environmental quality of marine, brackish and freshwater ecosystems. Biomarkers may indicate health status and can be applied to organisms of all zoological phyla by destructive or non destructive methods. For 5 years we have been using this approach in zooplankton to detect ecotoxicological alterations at low levels of the food chain due to contaminants. Here we review our approach to validate and apply biomarker techniques in zooplankton. We discuss advantages, limitations, some results and future research. We indicate that biomarkers in zooplankton can be used as new indices of trophic status and ecological integrity of Italian marine coastal and lagoon environments, to be included among the tools specified by Italian law D.Lgs. 152/2006.     

Exploring the ‘Birch effect’ in reservoir sediments: influence of inundation history on aerobic nutrient release

The release of nutrients on wetting (‘the Birch effect’) is well documented for terrestrial soils. The effect for aquatic sediments has received much less attention. An extreme drawdown event in a large reservoir during a period of drought presented an opportunity to test whether or not reflooding dried sediments would be a source of nutrients to the overlying water column. Wetting and drying history influences the release of ammonium, but not oxides of nitrogen, organic nitrogen, filterable reactive phosphorus or total phosphorus, from dried sediments following re-wetting. Dried reservoir sediments that have never, or have only rarely, been desiccated since the 1920s produced a pulse of ammonium on re-inundation. Conversely, dried sediments from parts of the reservoir that undergo frequent wetting and drying cycles do not release substantial amounts of ammonium on rewetting.     

Long-term trend of the waterbird community breeding in a heavily man-modified coastal lagoon: the case of the important bird area “Lagoon of Venice”

The aim of the paper is to examine the temporal and spatial changes observed over a 25-year period in the waterbird community nesting in the largest coastal lagoon around the Mediterranean; to examine driving factors for the observed changes; to address the most urgent conservation actions. Published sources and field surveys made between March and July were used to assess number of breeding pairs of the commonest waterbirds in 1990–1992, 2000–02 and 2012–14. The breeding waterbird community exhibited several changes in its structure, with an overall positive trend; the number of species increased from 14 to 25 and the mean yearly abundance increased from 6155 to 14,008 pairs. The diversity (H′) increased slightly, whereas similarity indices and nMDS ordination both highlighted clear differences between 1990 and 1992 and 2012–2014 communities. The increase in richness and abundance were mostly due to the immigration of birds from nearby wetlands, to the partial recovery of lagoon ecological conditions since the end of the 1980s and to the occurrence of suitable man-made habitats, such as fish farms, dredge islands and a constructed wetland. The fraction of the population nesting at artificial sites and fish farms increased from 50% in 1990–1992 till 80% in 2012–2014, highlighting the importance of artificial breeding sites in costal lagoons. At the opposite natural nesting habitats, such as saltmarshes and beaches are losing importance for breeding waterbirds, thus requiring urgent conservation measures.     

Differential routing of ‘new’ nitrogen toward higher trophic levels within the marine food web of the Gulf of Aqaba, Northern Red Sea

Mesozooplankton communities in the meso-oligotrophic Gulf of Aqaba, Northern Red Sea, were investigated over a 2 years period (2005–2007) with emphasis on the trophodynamic relations among different taxonomic groups ranging from primary consumers to carnivorous predators. Based on stable isotope analyses, we present evidence for a strong contribution of ‘new’ nitrogen mainly derived from the utilization of aerosol nitrate by unicellular cyanobacteria especially during summer stratification and the propagation of exceptionally low δ¹⁵N onto higher trophic levels. In contrast, N₂-fixation by diazotrophs seemed to play a minor role, while the utilization of deep water nitrate by cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae might be of importance during winter mixing. Based on ¹⁵N enrichment of consumers, clear differences between exclusively herbivorous organisms (doliolids, appendicularians, pteropods) and those with omnivorous feeding modes were detected. The category of omnivores comprised a large variety of taxons ranging from small meroplanktonic larvae to non-calanoid copepods (harpacticoids, cyclopoids and poecilostomatoids) that together form a diverse and complex community with overlapping feeding modes. In addition, distinct seasonality patterns in δ¹⁵N of copepods were found showing elevated trophic positions during periods of winter mixing, which were most pronounced for non-calanoid copepods. In general, feeding modes of omnivores appeared rather unselective, and relative contributions of heterotrophic protists and degraded material to the diets of non-calanoid copepods are discussed. At elevated trophic positions, four groups of carnivore predators were identified, while calanoid copepods and meroplanktonic predators showing lowest ¹⁵N enrichment within the carnivores. The direct link between ‘new’ nitrogen utilization by primary producers and the ¹⁵N enrichment of consumers in the planktonic food web of the Gulf of Aqaba emphasizes the significant contribution of ‘new’ nitrogen to the nitrogen budget and ecosystem functions in subtropical and tropical oligotrophic oceans.     

The values and vulnerabilities of ‘Star Wars Island’: exploring tensions in the sustainable management of the Skellig Michael World Heritage Site

This paper explores challenges in reconciling the cultural, economic and ecological pillars of the sustainable development concept. It does so by examining how conflicts in the management of an island off the Irish coast called Skellig Michael, which has been internationally designated for its significant cultural and ecological attributes, have been intensified by: (a) increasing tourist numbers; (b) a re-framing of the site’s identity and (c) changing visitor motivations. These have resulted from the amplified attention the island has received following the release of Star Wars: The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi in which it features prominently. Following a critical identification and discussion of the fault lines between different stakeholders involved in the conservation and use of the island, the paper advances a roadmap for action to help resolve animosity in the governance of the site and facilitate its sustainable management in the context of changing visitor numbers and profiles.     

Defining behavioural syndromes and the role of ‘syndrome deviation’ in understanding their evolution

This commentary highlights multivariate tools that have been used by evolutionary biologists in the study of syndromes and their evolution and discusses the insights that these methods provide into evolutionary processes relative to the metric ‘syndrome deviation’ that has recently been proposed by Herczeg and Garamszegi (Behav Ecol Sociobiol 66:161–169, 2012). We clarify that non-zero phenotypic correlations arise from the joint influences of within- and between-individual correlations, whereas only non-zero between-individual correlations represent behavioural syndromes, and discuss how acknowledgement of this subtle difference between phenotypic and between-individual correlations affects the applicability of syndrome deviation for the study of behavioural syndromes.     

Field identification of ‘types’ A and B of the ascidian Ciona intestinalis in a region of sympatry

The ascidian species Ciona intestinalis is a major model chordate in developmental and evolutionary biology, and an important fouling organism and invasive species. However, genomic investigation has recently revealed the existence of two cryptic species, genetically distinct yet without obvious morphological differences, currently referred to as types A and B. Here, we show that they are externally distinctive in a zone of sympatry in the western English Channel. Examining genotyped specimens, we found that types A and B of C. intestinalis can generally be distinguished by body colour, pigmentation at the distal end of the siphons and the presence or absence of tubercles on the sides of the siphons. Detecting specimens of hybrid descent still requires detailed molecular analysis, but these visual characters in combination will identify living specimens of types A and B with high probability. These differences are shown to be inherited.     

Impact of storm Xynthia in 2010 on coastal agricultural areas: the Saint Laurent de la Prée research farm’s experience

Storm Xynthia crossed France’s western coast between 28th February and 1st March 2010. It hit the Vendée and Charente-Maritime departments hardest, as storm surge flooded up to 23,000 ha of coastal agricultural areas (i.e. polders), causing severe damage to farming operations. However, farm-level damage in the aftermath of seawater flooding is an issue that has rarely been explored in the literature. Here we investigated the effects of storm Xynthia on agriculture at the farm scale. We focused on the case study of Saint Laurent de la Prée research farm, a mixed crop–livestock system that was severely hit. All damages were described and economic losses were quantified for the years 2010 and 2011. The results show numerous consequences of the storm in terms of crop and fodder production losses, but also farm infrastructure repairs, crop restoration and animal health problems. Economic damage costs were high, reaching €71,720 in 2010 (€500/ha flooded) and €56,195 (€390/ha) in 2011 for the case study farm. The discussion highlights the farm-level impacts of seawater flooding and the crucial factors that can explain the damage caused to agriculture by storm events in coastal areas. The results are also discussed in the wider context of global warming which is expected to cause sea level rise and more frequent storm events in the future. The vulnerability of coastal agricultural areas to storms thus exposes broader issues of coastal flooding risk management and specifically the allied protection–remediation–adaptation measures. The conclusions underline the need for future research to address prospective scenarios and subsequent adaptive strategies.     

A novel method for investigating the collective behaviour of fish: introducing ‘Robofish’

Collective animal behaviour has attracted much attention recently, but cause-and-effect within interaction sequences has often been difficult to establish. To tackle this problem, we constructed a robotic fish (‘Robofish’) with which three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.) interact. Robofish is a computer-controlled replica stickleback that can be programmed to move around a tank. First, we demonstrated the functioning of the method: that the sticklebacks interacted with Robofish. We examined two types of interaction: recruitment and leadership. We found that Robofish could recruit a single fish from a refuge and could initiate a turn in singletons and in groups of ten, i.e. act as a leader. We also showed that the influence of Robofish diminished after the first 30 min that fish spent in a new environment. Second, using this method, we investigated the effects of metric and topological inter-individual distance on the influence that Robofish had on the orientation of fish in a shoal of ten. We found that inter-individual interactions during this turn were predominantly mediated by topological, rather than metric, distance. Finally, we discussed the potential of this novel method and the importance of our findings for the study of collective animal behaviour.     

The erect ‘penis’ is a flag of submission in a female-dominated society: greetings in Serengeti spotted hyenas

In East Africa, spotted hyenas live in large clans in a highly structured society dominated by females. A clan is a fission-fusion society where members are often solitary or in small groups. Spotted hyenas have a ritualized greeting during which two individuals stand parallel and face in opposite directions. Both individuals usually lift their hind leg and sniff or lick the anogenital region of the other. The unique aspect of greetings between individuals is the prominent role of the erect penis in animals of both sex. Female spotted hyenas have fused outer labiae and a pseudo-penis formed by the clitoris which closely resembles the male penis and can be erected. During greetings subordinates signalled submission with gestures which were not necessarily reciprocated by the dominant participant. Asymmetries were most pronounced in greetings between adult females where the probability of asymmetries increased with the divergence in rank between partners. Greetings between adult females and males were uncommon and restricted to males above median rank, principally the alpha male. Models of primate affiliative behavior assume that benefits derived from social relationships with different individuals are not equal and that individuals are selected to maximize the benefits they receive from social relationships with others. The observed distribution of greetings between partners of different rank matched the predictions of these models. An examination of non-adaptive hypotheses on the evolution of the pseudo-penis demonstrated that the conventional scenario linking (initial) virilization of female genitalia with selection for female dominance does not explain either the initial virilization, nor the evolution of the pseudo-penis to its current form and use. We sketch a new scenario that links (1) initial virilization to the occurrence of neonatal siblicide amongst members of a twin litter, and (2) costs of maintenance, pseudo-penile control over copulation and male submission. Our analysis confirms previous adaptive hypotheses on the function of the pseudo-penis in greetings and suggests new hypotheses to account for hitherto unexplained features. Correspondence to: M.L. East     

‘Humpty Dumpty had a Great Fall’: Would globalization impact on the dissolution of states?

SUMMARY

It is argued in this paper that contemporary globalization is not truly a laissez-faire utopia because of the underlying political specifics in the First as well as the Third World. Rather, most of the benefits of globalization accrue to the First World because of the North's policy to resist laissez-faire movement of goods and people into its domain, and because of opposition to the dictates of the Washington Consensus in the Third World. The First World shows a reluctance to apply identical standards of laissez-faire to its borders and imports and tries, though not always with success, to impose on the Third World's legal structures. However, the concept of the state has yet to be dismantled by the process of globalization. The imperatives of globalization require the continuity of the system of separate states to maintain an unequal North-South dialogue.     

Size,spatial, and bathymetrical distribution of the ascidian Halocynthia papillosa in Mediterranean coastal bottoms: benthic–pelagic coupling implications

Benthic suspension feeders are abundant in Mediterranean coastal environments, though most of them are threatened due to overexploitation, climate change impacts, and unregulated diving or fishing practices. Little is known about most of the coastal communities in terms of large-scale distribution and realistic benthic–pelagic coupling implications, which are keys to understand and manage those threatened ecosystems. The active suspension feeder Halocynthia papillosa (one of the most common ascidian species of the Mediterranean Sea) was selected as a model organism to help to understand the ecological role in benthic–pelagic coupling processes and its importance as a carbon sink (an essential ecosystem service). The spatial and bathymetrical distribution of this organism has been studied using remotely operated vehicle video transects. The species was distributed throughout the study area, with a maximum density of 4 specimens m^?2. The highest abundances and the biggest sizes were observed on the range of 20–50 m depth. The role as carbon and nitrogen sink of this suspension feeder has been quantified coupling distribution data with existing in situ studies of feeding and respiration. Along the 1.24 ha of the study area, H. papillosa yearly ingested 519.4 g C and 31.4 g N and retained 20.2 g C. As long as the physiological data are known, this new methodology could be very useful in assessing bentho–pelagic links and the capacity of being C and N sinks of a wide range of species. This new approach may be essential for the future management of benthic communities.     

Death in the octopus’ garden: fatal blue-lined octopus envenomations of adult green sea turtles

The blue-lined octopus Hapalochlaena fasciata contains the powerful neuromuscular blocker tetrodotoxin (TTX), which causes muscle weakness and respiratory failure. H. fasciata is regarded as one of the most venomous marine animals in the world, and multiple human fatalities have been attributed to the octopus. To date, there have been no recorded incidents of an envenomation of a wild animal. Here, we present a newly developed, multi-stage tandem mass spectrometry technique that provides unequivocal evidence for two cases of envenomation of two ~110 kg herbivorous green sea turtles by two tiny cryptic blue-lined octopuses (~4 cm body length). These cases of accidental ingestion provide evidence for the first time of the antipredator effect of TTX and highlight a previously unconsidered threat to turtles grazing within seagrass beds.     

‘Ecomálaga’: an ecosystem analysis of the Mediterranean coast around Málaga, Spain

In October 1992, the Oceanographic Centre of Málaga of the Spanish Oceanographical Institute (IEO) started a monitoring project,Ecomálaga, which collects physical, chemical, biological and sedimentological data from the Alborán Sea shelf. The project is coordinated with similar projects in the Atlantic and Mediterranean Centres of IEO. The ultimate objective is to, understand the long-term changes of the essential marine-environmental parameters. So far, nine quarterly surveys have been carried out—from October 1992 to December 1994. The following variables were registered:abiotic: location weather, water temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll a, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, silicate,biotic: zooplankton biomass and species composition, and ichthyoplankton. The granulometric composition and organic matter content of sediments are also included. Data are stored in a computerized data base named Ecomálaga Data Base, with contributions from geology, physics, plankton biology and marine chemistry. The data base not only contains separate files for each research topic, but also allows for interchange between these files, resulting in a synoptic data output. It offers the users an output in the form of synthetic records of each station sampled. The analysis of the data indicates seasonal influences and ainshore-offshore gradient, as well as an Atlantic influence on the stations located in the transect closest to the Strait of Gibraltar.