Managing Water Quality in Developing Countries

Over the next decade the management of water quality will be one of the outstanding issues relating to the protection and conservation of the national stock of water. In the past, particularly in countries well-endowed with water resources, this has been considered to be a relatively negligible problem. However, the rapid growth of population in major urban centres, industrialization and the heavy dependence on chemical products in the agricultural sector are leading to a serious deterioration of water quality.
This paper reviews the nature of the pollution issue, the institutional requirements to deal with the problem in an effective and comprehensive manner and the near-term actions which governments should take to protect their existing water resources.     

Sources of Deforestation in Tropical Developing Countries

/ Key causes of tropical deforestation are investigated using cross-sectional data for 90 developing countries for the period 1981-1990. Regression results reveal that deforestation is associated with both development and scarcity. Deforestation accelerates with expanding infrastructure, trade, debt, investment in the human capital base, and resource-based economic expansion. On the other hand, absolute and relative scarcities-manifested by growing population pressures, food and land shortages, fuelwood dependency, and inequalities in access to land-are also key factors explaining forest loss. Thus, results point to a fundamental environmental conundrum: Development is required if countries are to alleviate scarcity-driven forms of forest exploitation but is itself a major cause of deforestation. Can countries balance development goals with forest protection? Setting aside the issue of its practical realization, the paper concludes that forest sustainable development cannot be achieved by implementing simple technical improvements in land-use practices alone. Securing the foundations for the sustainability of the forest base will require that countries address the underlying social processes driving tropical forest loss as well.KEY WORDS: Tropical deforestation; Developing countries; Rural land-use practices; Development; Scarcity.     

Utilization of Subsurface Space in Developing Countries

This paper summarizes the subject matter covered at the United Nations Interregional Workshop on the Utilization of Subsurface Space convened in Stockholm, Sweden, 24–29 October 1982. The utilization of subsurface space has largely been confined to developed countries so far, and the purpose of the meeting was to focus attention upon its potential use in developing countries. Participants at the Workshop discussed the utilization of subsurface space in relation to the underground storage of food and commodities, water, petroleum and gas, and also energy production and utilization. Additional topics included transportation systems and public utilities. The implementation of such projects is discussed with respect to technology and technology transfer and to the economics of subsurface development. As capital, in particular, is a limited resource in developing countries, attention was devoted to the financing of such undertakings. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of the conclusions reached with specific attention to the possible role of United Nations organizations in this increasingly important area. Cet article résume le sujet traité par le Groupe de travail interrégional des Nations Unies sur l'utilisation de l'espace souterrain qui s'est tenu à Stockholm, en Suède, du 24 au 29 octobre 1982. Ce n'est que dans les pays industriels qu'on a jusqu'à présent largement utilisé l'espace souterrain et le but de ce Groupe de travail a été d'attirer l'attention sur le potentiel qu'il représente dans les pays en développement. Les participants ont discuté de l'utilisation de l'espace souterrain dans le cadre du stockage d'aliments et de biens de consommation, de l'eau, du petrole et du gaz, et aussi de la production et l'utilisation de l'énergie. Ils ont également discuté d'autres sujets, tels que les transports souterrains et l'enfouissement des structures industrielles. De plus, l'article traite de la mise en oeuvre de ces projets en ce qui concerne leur technologie et les transferts de technologie ainsi que des aspects économiques de la mise en valeur de l'espace souterrain. Les ressources financières étant, en particulier, limitées dans les pays en développement, le Groupe de travail s'est attaché au mode de financement de telles entreprises. L'article se termine par une brève discussion des conclusions auxquelles sont parvenus les participants en étudiant le rôle possible des organismes des Nations Unies dans ce domaine dont l'importance s'accroît. Este articulo resume el tema tratado en el Seminario Interregional de las Naciones Unidas sobre la utilización del Espacio en Subsuelo que tuvo lugar en Estocolmo, Suecia, del 24 al 29 de octubre de 1982. El espacio en subsuelo ha sido mayormente utilizado sólo por los países en desarrollo por lo cual el propósito de la reunión fue enfocado al caso de los países en desarrollo. Los participantes en la reunión discutieron la utilización del espacio en subsuelo con relación al almacenamiento de alimentos y otros bienes, agua, petróleo y gas y tambien en relación con la producción y utilización de energía. Tópicos adicionales incluyeron los sistemas de transporte y servicio público. La ejécución de tales proyectos se discuten con respecto a la tecnología del desarrollo del subsuelo. Debido a que el capital es la particular en recurso limitado en los países en desarrollo, se dió atención al financiamiento de tales proyectos. El artículo termina con una discusión breve de las conclusiones de la reunión, en especial, aquellos que se refieron al posible rol de las organizaciones de las Naciones Unidas en este área de importancia creciente.     

Pricing of Natural Gas in Developing Countries

The uncertain supply and increasing cost of petroleum products since 1973 has spurred on the development of alternative forms of energy. Natural gas is a major source of energy in over 50 developing countries. In these countries natural gas has many uses as a substitute for other fuels or as a feedstock. This paper discusses the economic concept for pricing of natural gas, in particular marginal costs, and estimates the economic cost of natural gas in developing countries under a wide range of conditions. The marginal cost of natural gas estimated for these countries is far below the border price of competing fuels. Because natural gas is in its early days of development, gas supply costs are not expected to rise in these countries within the next two decades as already proven reserves are tapped.     

Petroleum Company Operations and Agreements in the Developing Countries

Book revewed in this article:
Petroleum Company Operations & Agreements in Developing Countries Author : Raymond F. Mikesell     

Encouraging Natural Gas Exploration in Developing Countries

Significant distinctions that exist between crude oil and natural gas compel that separate terms for gas be included in petroleum agreements. Fiscal terms, production shares and cost recovery are, like oil, important economic considerations in gas agreements. However, unlike oil agreements, other economic terms will also need to receive attention because gas agreements need to give explicit recognition to the process for commercializing the gas discovery.     

Adaptation to Climate Change in Developing Countries

Adaptation to climate change is given increasing international attention as the confidence in climate change projections is getting higher. Developing countries have specific needs for adaptation due to high vulnerabilities, and they will in this way carry a great part of the global costs of climate change although the rising atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations are mainly the responsibility of industrialized countries. This article provides a status of climate change adaptation in developing countries. An overview of observed and projected climate change is given, and recent literature on impacts, vulnerability, and adaptation are reviewed, including the emerging focus on mainstreaming of climate change and adaptation in development plans and programs. The article also serves as an introduction to the seven research articles of this special issue on climate change adaptation in developing countries. It is concluded that although many useful steps have been taken in the direction of ensuring adequate adaptation in developing countries, much work still remains to fully understand the drivers of past adaptation efforts, the need for future adaptation, and how to mainstream climate into general development policies.     

Continuing Issues in the Limitations of Pesticide Use in Developing Countries

The rationale for pesticide use in agriculture is that costs associated with pesticide pollution are to be justified by its benefits, but this is not so obvious. Valuing the benefits by simple economic analysis has increased pesticide use in agriculture and consequently produced pesticide-induced “public ills.” This paper attempts to explore the research gaps of the economic and social consequences of pesticide use in developing countries, particularly with an example of Nepal. We argue that although the negative sides of agricultural development, for example- soil, water, and air pollution; pest resistance and resurgence; bioaccumulation, bio-magnification; and loss of biodiversity and ecosystem resilience caused by the use of pesticides in agriculture, are “developmental problems” and are “unintentional,” the magnitude may be increased by undervaluing the problems in the analysis of its economic returns. Despite continuous effort for holistic system analyses for studying complex phenomena like pesticides impacts, the development within the academic science has proceeded in the opposite direction that might have accelerated marginalization of the third world subsistence agricultural communities. We hypothesize that, if these adversities are realized and accounted for, the benefits from the current use of pesticides could be outweighed by the costs of pollution and ill human health. This paper also illustrates different pathways and mechanisms for marginalization. In view of potential and overall negative impacts of pesticide use, we recommend alternative ways of controlling pests such as community integrated pest management (IPM) along with education and training activities. Such measures are likely to reduce the health and environmental costs of pesticide pollution, and also enhance the capabilities of third world agricultural communities in terms of knowledge, decision making, innovation, and policy change.     

New Approach to Water Supply in Developing Countries

The supply of adequate water is cited as one of the major challenges to governments in developing countries, mainly because communities in many countries have come to depend almost entirely upon governments for the provision of that vital resource. Some reasons for poor performance of government water supply projects are given. Recent developments at the Federal level in Nigeria, which should substantially improve the domestic water supply situation, are described. It is suggested that governments will have to change their practice of concentrating on large-scale schemes to one of undertaking several small-scale schemes simultaneously through the pooling of government and local, especially community self-help, resources. L'un des principaux problèmes que rencontrent les gouvernements des pays en développement est celui de l'alimentation en eau en quantité suffisantes car les collectivités dans de nombreux pays en sont arrivées à dépendre presqu'entièrement du gouvernement pour l'approvisionnement de cette ressource vitale. Cet article donne quelquesunes des raisons qui peuvent expliquer les maigres résultats obtenus par un gouvernement lorsqu'il s'agit de projets d'alimentation en eau. Il relate des travaux récents entrepris au niveau fédéral au Nigéia et qui devraient améliorer de manière substantielle l'alimentation en eau des foyers domestiques. Il est suggéré que les gouvernements devraient modifier leur politique qui consiste à ne s'intéresser qu'à des projets de grande dimension pour réaliser de manière simultanée plusieurs projets à petite échelle en mettant en commun les moyens gouvernementaux et locaux et, plus spécialement, l'aide que peuvent apporter les communautés. El suministro suficiente de agua es considerado como uno de los desafíos mayores para los gobiernos de los países en desarrollo, debido a que en la mayoría de estos países las comunidades dependen casi enteramente en el gobierno para el suministro de este recurso tan vital. Se señalan algunas causas de la acción deficiente del gobierno en los proyectos de suministro de agua. Se describen desarrollos recientes a nivel federal en Nigeria los que posiblemente mejorarán sustancialmente el suministro doméstico de agua. Se sugiere que los gobiernos tienen que cambiar la práctica de concentrarse en esquemas de gran envergadura hacia el desarrollo de proyectos de pequéna escala aprovechando simultaneamente recursos del gobierno nacional, local y, especialmente, la participación de los consumidores.     

Coal Use for Electricity Generation in Developing Countries

During the next 20 years, coal will have a growing importance both in absolute and relative terms. In the non-OPEC developing countries, coal consumption will double by the year 2000. Coal, however, must be obtained, transported, burned and the residue ash disposed of to be of economic benefit. This paper using current Japanese experience examines some of the problems involved in obtaining and using coal for electric power generation and compares the costs of its use with other fuels.
Il y aura dans les 20 ans a venir une importance accrue du charbon en termes relatifs et absolus. Les pays n'appartenant pas a L'OPEP verront leur consommation de charbon passer du simple au double d'ici l'an 2000. Mais pour avoir une valeur économique, le charbon devra être produit, transporté et brulé, et il se posera en outre un problème d'évacuation des cendres résiduelles. Ce mémoire qui a pour base l'expérience actuelle du Japon fait l'examen de quelques problèmes liés à la production et à l'utilisation du charbon dans le cadre de la production d'énergie électrique. Il compare les coûts d'utilisation de celui-ci et de carburants divers.
Durante los próximos 20 años, el carbón tendrá importancia creciente tanto en términos absolutos como relativos. En los países en desarrollo no miembros de OPEP, el consumo de carbón doblará para el año 2000. Teniendo en consideración la experiencia del Japón, este articulo examina algunos de los problemas en la obtención y uso del carbón en plantas de generación eléctrica y compara con otros combustibles alternativos.     

Cogeneration in Developing Countries: Prospects and Problems

The analysis reveals that although cogeneration alone will not resolve power-shortage problems, it could produce more scheme in developing countries. The paper estimates the cogeneration potential in selected countries and identifies the technical, economic/financial and institutional issues of importance to cogeneration development in developing countries. The analysis reveals that although cogeneration alone will not resolve power-shortage problems, it could produce more than a 10% increase in the electricity-generation capacity in developing countries. Most of this potential is in the industrial sector and can be economically developed.     

The Role of the Private Sector in Providing Water in Developing Countries

The purpose of this article is to describe the role of the private sector in the supply of water in developing countries. In addition to citing some of the advantages to private supply, the paper discusses some of the objections to private provision, namely 'Natural Monopoly', 'Externalities', and the alleged inability to charge for water. It is concluded that the main obstacles to the private supply of water services are political rather than technical or financial, and that the French Affermage system (or variations thereon) seems to be suitable for many developing countries. There also appears to be considerable scope, in both towns and villages, for consumer co-operatives, and for the enhancement of water vending.     

An Assessment of Future Energy Demand in Developing Countries

The statistical data show that the rapid growth in oil and energy demand in less-developed countries (LDCs) can be attributed to the rapid growth in gross domestic products (GDP) and the relatively high energy intensity in LDCs. The statistical analysis confirms that the GDP elasticities of aggregate energy and oil demand are high and the energy price elasticities are relatively low for the 15 LDCs studied. The projection shows that the future oil and aggregate energy demands are likely to increase at fairly rapid rates in LDCs. Furthermore, there are reasons to believe that these high growth rates may be sustained.     

污水生物脱氮除磷技术研究进展

本文综述了城市污水生物脱氮除磷技术研究及应用进展，分析了目前应用的脱氮除磷工艺机理及其特点，探讨了城市污水生物脱氮除磷工艺深入研究的方向。     

Operational Indicators for Measuring Agricultural Sustainability in Developing Countries

This paper reviews relevant literature on the sustainability indicators theoretically proposed and practically applied by scholars over the past 15 years. Although progress is being made in the development and critical analysis of sustainability indicators, in many cases existing or proposed indicators are not the most sensitive or useful measures in developing countries. Indicator selection needs to meet the following criteria: relative availability of data representing the indicators, sensitivity to stresses on the system, existence of threshold values and guidelines, predictivity, integratability and known response to disturbances, anthropogenic stresses, and changes over time. Based on these criteria, this paper proposes a set of operational indicators for measuring agricultural sustainability in developing countries. These indicators include ecological indicators involving amounts of fertilizers and pesticides used, irrigation water used, soil nutrient content, depth to the groundwater table, water use efficiency, quality of groundwater for irrigation, and nitrate content of both groundwater and crops. Economic indicators include crop productivity, net farm income, benefit–cost ratio of production, and per capita food grain production. Social indicators encompass food self-sufficiency, equality in food and income distribution among farmers, access to resources and support services, and farmers knowledge and awareness of resource conservation. This article suggests that the selection of indicators representing each aspect of sustainability should be prioritized according to spatial and temporal characteristics under consideration.     

Energy Planning in Developing Countries: The Role of Microcomputers

Microcomputers are beginning to be used for energy analysis in many developing countries, and have the potential for making a significant contribution to the resolution of difficult analytical and data problems, and to improving communications between analyst and decision-maker. Successful introduction of a microcomputer based on analytical capability, however, requires attention to several important factors in order to avoid the mistakes of the earlier mainframe computer era. This paper reviews the key issues of matching models to staff capabilities, of training, and of the operating environment, based on the author's first-hand experience with microcomputer projects in Uruguay, Haiti and Sri Lanka.