Choice or coercion: dilemmas of sustainable social housing. A study of two developments in Kent

Social housing in the UK is currently required to meet higher levels of sustainability than new private housing, but since social tenants have little choice about their housing, this poses important issues about the possible coerced consumption of sustainable housing. The article examines residents' responses to two social housing developments in Kent in which the housing association concerned took advantage of government subsidies to incorporate sustainability features. The similarities and differences between residents' responses in the two estates are outlined, and are attributed to the types of tenants involved and to the particular technical and administrative features of the innovative features. It is concluded that, given the potential coercive character of the consumption of sustainability features, housing associations need to adopt a sensitive and realistic approach to such innovations and their possible benefits.     

发展我国环保产业应对措施的探讨

针对我国环保产业发展中存在的问题,提出应对措施:1.健全完善环保法律体系,强化执法力度;2.培育环保市场,促进环保产业的有序竞争;3.转变政府职能,建立新型环保产业管理体制;4.实现环保企业结构性恢复;5.在产业结构和布局上提高资源配置效率,避免重复建设;6.建立适应市场经济的发展机制;7.推进环保企业规模化经营;8.环保融资多元化.     

Brownfield redevelopment as a smart growth option in the United States

An evaluation is made of brownfields redevelopment as a smart growth policy compared to purchase of land, restrictive growth policies, changing transportation patterns, promoting compact development designs on the metropolitan fringe, and regional government. In the US brownfields redevelopment has clear advantages with regard to environmental protection, moral imperative, and government and special interest reactions. Its rank with regard to economic feasibility, ability to respond to changes in technology, and public reaction are not clear. A great deal more research is needed, especially about the costs of brownfield redevelopment and public preferences for housing type and location to be certain about brownfields redevelopment as a viable smart growth option.     

The Caged Chicken or the Free-Range Egg? The Regulatory and Market Dynamics of Layer-Hen Welfare in the UK,Australia and the USA

Since the 1990s there have been a number of government and market led initiatives to improve the welfare of layer hens in the United Kingdom, Australia and the USA. The focus of these regulatory and market initiatives has been a shift away from the dominant battery-cage system to enriched cages, barn/aviary and free-range production systems. Government regulations have played an important role in setting some minimum welfare standards and the banning of battery cages in the UK and in some US states. However the commodification and market segmentation of higher welfare standards has also seen the growth in production and demand of cage-free and free-range eggs in all three countries. This paper maps and compares the developments in government regulation and market segmentation of layer-hen welfare in the UK, Australia and the USA. The role of labelling and certification in facilitating commodification and market segmentation will be examined, including the public controversies and legal conflicts over egg labelling. The key state, market and civil society actors in each country will also be identified, and their role in driving or resisting higher standards examined, including the increasingly influential role of animal welfare organizations and food corporations.     

A conspectus on valuing the environment

A distinction is drawn between opportunity cost and willingness‐to‐pay (WTP) valuations of the environment and the latter are shown to be appropriate only in situations where no agreed environmental standards exist. WTP measures of environmental effects form the basis of the Pigovian model of externalities. This model is applicable where individuals directly perceive environmental effects as nuisances or the reverse. But with many environmental problems direct perception does not occur and the Pigovian model is not applicable. In these circumstances it is wrong to talk of biases in WTP estimations since no ‘true’ WTP exists. A decision rule grounded in WTP could still be used but is open to serious objections. The preferred approach is through the development of environmental standards.     

From socioeconomic disparity to environmental injustice: the relationship between housing unit density and community green space in a medium city in Pakistan

Rapid urbanisation, lack of proactive planning and improper allocation of resources may result in socio-economic disparity among and within cities, causing social unrest and environmental injustice in the neighbourhoods. This study aims to examine whether the planning standards for housing schemes in Pakistan are able to maintain equitable access to green spaces within the cities. Ten residential sites in Sheikhupura city with different housing unit sizes and densities were selected for the study. The supply of urban green infrastructure in housing scheme has been assessed: (i) by comparing the percentage of green spaces, including community parks and open spaces and street landscape; and (ii) by calculating per dwelling unit and per capita share of green spaces. These indicators have been studied against the housing density and population density of the schemes by applying correlation and linear regression models. The results show that all the housing schemes plans provide for similar amounts of green space as a percentage of total area. The per capita share of green spaces is very low in high-density areas, but interestingly, the street landscape has a higher potential to contribute to the overall landscape in high-density neighbourhoods, compensating for low per capita green space. Housing unit density and population density must be incorporated in planning standards so planners can effectively devise a mix of community parks, street landscape and private green spaces to help maintain per capita green spaces, and hence environmental resource equality in different parts of the city.     

Seeing the Animal: On the Ethical Implications of De-animalization in Intensive Animal Production Systems

This article discusses the notion that the invisibility of the animalness of the animal constitutes a fundamental obstacle to change within current production systems. It is discussed whether housing animals in environments that resemble natural habitats could lead to a re-animalization of the animals, a higher appreciation of their moral significance, and thereby higher standards of animal welfare. The basic claim is that experiencing the animals in their evolutionary and environmental context would make it harder to objectify animals as mere bioreactors and production systems. It is argued that the historic objectification of animals within intensive animal production can only be reversed if animals are given the chance to express themselves as they are and not as we see them through the tunnel visions of economy and quantifiable welfare assessment parameters.     

The transformation of multi‐storey dwellings by self‐help: workers’ city,Helwan, Egypt

Self‐help extensions to government‐built housing are now accepted as a valuable addition to the housing stock in many third world countries. This paper describes self‐help extensions being made to five‐storey walk‐up flats in Helwan, Egypt, to provide more living space for households which have grown too large for the two rooms initially provided. It is argued that the cooperative effort and standard of construction are resulting in an acceptable new environment. Government response should be to encourage and guide such extensions wherever they occur.     

Housing growth,forests, and public lands in Northern Wisconsin from 1940 to 2000

Rural, forested areas throughout the United States are experiencing strong housing growth with potentially detrimental impacts on the environment. In this paper, we quantify housing growth in Northern Wisconsin over the last sixty years to determine if growth rates were higher near public lands, which may represent an important recreational amenity. We used data from the U.S. Census to produce decadal housing density estimates, “backcasts,” from 1940 to 2000 for northern Wisconsin to examine “rural sprawl” in northern Wisconsin and its relationship to forested areas and public lands. We integrated housing density estimates with the 1992/1993 National Land Cover Dataset to examine the relationship between rural sprawl and land cover, especially forests. Between 1940 and 2000, private land with <2 housing units/km² decreased from 47% to 21% of the total landscape. Most importantly, housing growth was concentrated along the boundaries of public lands. In 14 of the 19 counties that we studied, housing growth rates within 1 km of a public land boundary exceeded growth rates in the remainder of the county, and three of the five counties that did not exhibit this pattern, were the ones with the least amount of public land. Future growth can be expected in areas with abundant natural amenities, highlighting the critical need for additional research and effective natural resource management and regional planning to address these challenges.     

Future implications of urban intensification on residential water demand

Over recent decades Auckland, New Zealand, metropolitan area has vastly expanded as a result of rapid population growth and low-density housing developments. In order to manage the uncontrolled low-density urban sprawl, Auckland Council proposed a compact city model through promoting higher density housing developments. In order to understand the implications of this transition on future residential water demand, this study first evaluated water consumption in three major housing types in Auckland including single houses, low-rise and high-rise apartments. Using the geographic information system, the water consumption information, estimated from a large sample of 60,000 dwellings across Auckland, was subsequently integrated with the Proposed Auckland Unitary Plan outlining the future housing composition over different areas in Auckland. Through developing different growth scenarios, the study showed that the housing transition from single houses to more intensified multi-unit houses cannot considerably affect the average per capita water consumption in Auckland.     

历史性转变——20o6中国环境保护评述

2006年,从中央到地方都大幅度强化了环境保护的施政力度。中央提出了环境保护与经济增长要并重、同步和综合的要求,这被称为“环境保护的历史性转变”。与此同时,国家出台了20多项以环境保护为重要内容或与环境保护有关的产业政策和其他经济政策。新成立了11个环境保护和核安全的区域督查机构,层层下达了主要污染物排放消减指标。各地也把主要精力放在了推动新型工业化和城市化进程上,出台了大量加强和支持环境保护的经济政策和管理措施。     

The Ethics and Politics of Animal Welfare in New Zealand: Broiler Chicken Production as a Case Study

The cause of poor welfare in broilers is multifactorial, but genotype is a major contributor. Modern broilers have been bred for rapid growth, and this leads to increases in lameness and ascites as the legs and hearts of the heavier birds find it difficult to cope with the extra demands placed on them. Visible lameness indicative of pain is more common in New Zealand than in Europe. The government, however, insists that New Zealand welfare standards are higher than Europe. The government also appears to have a strong antipathy to those demanding better welfare for broilers. Reasons for this antipathy and disparities between government statements and research results are discussed. Government publications reveal that animal welfare is seen as a question of image for market access and that there is little concern with animal welfare as an ethical imperative for its own sake. The Animal Welfare Act in theory makes it an offence to ill treat an animal, but in practice allows exemptions for industrial agriculture. The interests of animals may be better protected by an independent animal welfare advisory service.     

Using participation to create resilience: how to involve citizens in designing a hospital system?

Decisions on health-related risks affect many people personally. The public debate on hospital planning is therefore especially emotional and conflict-ridden. Due to the aging population and the high costs of constantly improving medical care, the question arises in many German rural areas as to which hospitals can be kept and developed further and which ones should be closed. The new approach of the present state government of Baden-Württemberg in Germany, in collaboration with the University of Stuttgart and the State Health Office Baden-Württemberg, is to apply citizen participation to prepare this type of decision. The design of this type of public participation process is based on the criteria of mediation (including open decision-making scope, opportunity for discussion in the protected context of the working group, as well as disclosure of all information and transparency of the results toward the public). This approach has proven useful for conducting dialogs in areas with potential conflict. Based on the experiences from this hospital participation process, further recommendations for an effective, efficient and fair participation processes could be derived. The case demonstrates that adequate and structured involvement processes are capable of delivering sustainably acceptable results even in difficult decision-making processes.     

Predicting impacts of major projects on housing prices in resource based towns with a case study application to Gladstone,Australia

The resources sector in Australia makes a major contribution to the national economy, and underpins employment and population in the mining and mineral processing towns. For those towns, rapid growth in employment can generate particular pressures in local housing markets because of the relatively large size of the industry and the small housing stocks involved. Through a case study of Gladstone, the study provides a dynamic five-step population and housing model, to estimate short to medium term mining impacts of major resource developments. The model includes both the direct and indirect labour force generated by new resource sector developments and their flow-on effects on population increases. Sensitivity testing has allowed for different levels of resource development, employment multipliers and labour inflows. Three different approaches have then been applied to predict the housing price impacts of the expected population growth.     

Housing in the new cities of Egypt

The New Cities of Egypt represent a major effort to redistribute investment and population away from Cairo and the Delta in a brave attempt to use desert land. Through a study of three cities under construction, the reliance on government‐built walk‐up flats for housing provision is discussed and its relevance for later phases questioned. In conclusion, the efficacy of the New Cities as counter‐attractions is doubted in the absence of effective controls on the growth of Cairo.     

Assessing energy use and greenhouse gas emission savings from compact housing: a small-town case study

Data from the US Department of Energy show that single-family detached homes consume about 17% more energy per year than attached homes and roughly double that of units in large multi-family structures. While greater use of these compact housing types could reduce a community's energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, most local climate action plans (CAPs) do not quantify those potential savings. This article describes how the climate action planning process in the Town of Blacksburg, Virginia has addressed residential sector GHG emissions and demonstrates a methodology applied in that community for estimating potential GHG reductions from compact housing. It finds that in an aggressive compact housing scenario GHG emissions from new housing could be decreased by as much as 36%, without factoring in additional energy conservation or efficiency measures. The article concludes with a discussion of the opportunities and challenges related to implementing compact housing in future residential development.     

生态正外部性内部化的实现途径与机制创新

随着经济社会发展以及“绿水青山就是金山银山”理念在全社会的深化,迫切需要解决生态服务的区域外部性问题。正外部性内部化是实现生态服务价值的重要手段,主要包括政府购买、协议补偿、生态商品、创建市场等方式。生态正外部性的价值可以通过生态要素的直接市场、包含于生态商品的间接价值以及基于成本—收益的生态补偿标准来确定,而现有的协议补偿标准多基于上游地区的保护成本,应将发展的机会成本作为参考依据。最后,从机制上将收益内部化转变为主体内部化,可以从根本上解决保护与收益主体分离带来的一系列生态保护与经济发展的冲突问题。     

Comparative Analysis of New Zealand and US Approaches for Agricultural Nonpoint Source Pollution Management

The role of the central government in New Zealand is generally limited to research and policy development, and regional councils are responsible for most monitoring and management of the problem. The role of the federal government in the United States includes research and monitoring, policy development, and regulation. States also have a significant management role. Both countries rely on voluntary approaches for NPS pollution management. Very few national water quality standards exist in New Zealand, whereas standards are widely used in the United States. Loading estimates and modeling are often used in the United States, but not in New Zealand. A wide range of best management practices (BMPs) are used in the United States, including buffer strips and constructed/engineered wetlands. Buffer strips and riparian management have been emphasized and used widely in New Zealand. Many approaches are common to both countries, but management of the problem has only been partly successful. The primary barriers are the inadequacy of the voluntary approach and the lack of scientific tools that are useful to decision-makers. More work needs to be performed on the evaluation of approaches developed in both countries that could be applied in the other countries. In addition, more cooperation and information/technology transfer between the two countries should be encouraged in the future.     

An Approach for Evaluating the Effectiveness of Various Ozone Air Quality Standards for Protecting Trees

We demonstrate an approach for evaluating the level of protection attained using a variety of forms and levels of past, current, and proposed Air Quality Standards (AQSs). The U.S. Clean Air Act requires the establishment of ambient air quality standards to protect health and public welfare. However, determination of attainment of these standards is based on ambient pollutant concentrations rather than prevention of adverse effects. To determine if a given AQS protected against adverse effects on vegetation, hourly ozone concentrations were adjusted to create exposure levels that “just attain” a given standard. These exposures were used in combination with a physiologically-based tree growth model to account for the interactions of climate and ozone. In the evaluation, we used ozone concentrations from two 6-year time periods from the San Bernardino Mountains in California. There were clear differences in the level of vegetation protection achieved with the various AQSs. Based on modeled plant growth, the most effective standards were the California 8-hr average maximum of 70 ppb and a seasonal, cumulative, concentration-weighted index (SUM06), which if attained, resulted in annual growth reductions of 1% or less. Least effective was the 1-hr maximum of 120 ppb which resulted in a 7% annual reduction. We conclude that combining climate, exposure scenarios, and a process-based plant growth simulator was a useful approach for evaluating effectiveness of current or proposed air quality standards, or evaluating the form and/or level of a standard based on preventing adverse growth effects.     

If not here,then perhaps not anywhere: urban growth management as a tool for sustainability planning in British Columbia's capital regional district

In 1995 the provincial government of British Columbia, Canada, passed new legislation encouraging regional districts to prepare Regional Growth Strategies. The strategies were to be means of coordinating municipal action on regional issues. They were also meant to facilitate pursuit of sustainability objectives, including reducing urban sprawl, protecting environmentally sensitive areas, providing affordable housing and decreasing pollution. This paper examines the experience so far in one region that chose to prepare a growth strategy: the Capital Regional District (CRD) at the south end of Vancouver Island. Growth‐management planning in the CRD has been and remains both critical and difficult. The region expects a substantial population increase over the next couple of decades and has a limited land base for urban expansion. Many citizens recognise that their quality of life is high, but vulnerable and, as a result, public support for effective growth management is stronger in the CRD than in many other provincial growth areas. However, BC does not have a tradition of strong regional governance and the CRD as a regional authority is the creature of sixteen municipalities and electoral areas. Seven years into the process, effective growth management still faces substantial challenges, including the persistent jurisdictional protectionism of CRD municipalities. Nevertheless, there have been positive achievements and an admirable diversity of individuals, organisations and initiatives continue to push municipal and regional officials towards a more sustainable future.