PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS IN WATER QUALITY EVALUATION1

ABSTRACT: A Visual Perception Test, consisting of photographic slides of water sites, was designed to examine laymen's water quality perceptions. The slides were taken at five water sites where the level of visual pollution was artifically altered by the investigator. Analysis of variance indicated that the water sites were evaluated differently for each of five pollution levels. Increases in water discoloration and the quality of litter were viewed as increases in level of pollution. Laymen not only evaluated visually polluted sites lower for uses such as picnicking, but they also evaluated the quality of the actual water lower. Stepwise multiple regression indicated that a combination of water color, scenic beauty appreciation, quality of the surrounding environment and industry as a pollution source explained 73 percent of the variance in predicting Overall Pollution. Application of factor analysis simplified the variables to an Overall Pollution Factor and a Boating Use Factor.     

THE WATER RESOURCES COUNCIL'S PROPOSED PRINCIPLES AND STANDARDS - AN ECONOMIC COMMENT1

The way the Water Resources Council proposes to measure the beneficial effects of national economic development and recreation is questioned and alternatives suggested. In measuring the former, the assumptions specified by the Council are questioned because they do not hold true in the market place. In addition, the Council's method of simulating a price per recreation day implies that an arbitrary price be selected from a range and multiplied times the number of days at no charge for use of the facilities. It is contended that these procedures would over state the economic benefits which in the real market would be measured by the selected price times the quantity demanded at that price.     

LAKE WATER COLOR: COMPARISON OF DIRECT OBSERVATIONS WITH UNDERWATER SPECTRAL IRRADIANCE1

ABSTRACT: The water color in 14 lakes of diverse optical character has been computed from near-surface upwelling irradiance spectra recorded by a submersible spectroradiometer. In these lakes the hues corresponding to irradiance spectra are in reasonable agreement with Munsell hue matches obtained directly by observation in the field. The simple field technique for hue matching using the Munsell standards was broadly validated by this spectroradiometric study. The technique is recommended for further study by limnologists and water resource managers as a potential additional tool for characterizing waters.     

STRATEGIES TO CONTROL NONPOINT SOURCE WATER POLLUTION1

ABSTRACT: Strategies for controlling nonpoint sources of water pollution are discussed in terms of three representative states and eighteen regional agencies. The programs in Virginia, New York, and Wisconsin are seen to exhibit control options which range from voluntary action to strict regulation. Four conclusions are drawn from the analysis. First, nonpoint sources of pollution are a major component of the overall water pollution problem in the three states. Second, technical controls are generally available to solve the problems. Third, existing controls programs are not necessarily technologically sound or cost effective. Finally, existing control programs are capable of instituting solutions to the problems if and only if specified actions take place within the respective states and regions in the future. Critical research needs are identified which will assist states and regions in developing cost effective programs to control nonpoint source pollution.     

INSTITUTIONS AND TECHNOLOGY: KEYS TO BETTER WATER MANAGEMENT1

Seven considerations which bear upon the achievement of better water management are discussed. First, separation of judgments of fact from judgements of value is helpful in deciding upon what actions to take. Second, separation of social values from matters of individual or group interest is crucial to institutional design. Third, achieving economically efficient water management may create a surplus of benefits which can be divided among the parties in order to resolve conflicts. Fourth, surpluses also can be used inappropriately, whether to reward undesirable behavior or to penalize unjustly. Fifth, avoidance of external costs is best achieved through restructuring of rewards and penalties. Sixth, technological solutions are too easily selected in place of less costly institutional change. Seventh, water management technology is too often selected in place of more cost-effective, water-related technology. Selected examples of each of these considerations are offered. However, better water management is not easy to define. The social process criterion adopted in this paper is discussed briefly.     

A DIGITAL MODEL APPLIED TO GROUND WATER RECHARGE AND MANAGEMENT1

ABSTRACT: Under Colorado's appropriative water right system, withdrawals by junior ground water rights must be curtailed to protect senior surface water appropriators sharing the same river system unless the ground water users replace the amount of their injury to the river under an approved plan for augmentation. Compensation of such injury with surface water may not only be expensive but unreliable in dry years. As an alternative, the curtailment of pumping may be obviated by recharging unused surface water into the aquifer when available and withdrawing it when needed. In order to manage such an operation, a practical tool is required to accurately determine that portion of the recharge water that does not return to the river before pumping for irrigation. A digital model was used for this purpose in a demonstration recharge project located in the South Platte River basin in northeastern Colorado. This paper summarizes the experiences gained from this project, the results of the digital model, the economic value of recharge, and the feasibility of the operation. It was determined through the use of the digital model that, with the given conditions in the area, 77 percent of the recharged water remained available for pumping. Economic analyses showed that water could be recharged inexpensively averaging about two dollars per acre foot.     

WATER QUALITY CONCERNS AND REGULATORY CONTROLS FOR NONSTORM WATER DISCHARGES TO STORM DRAINS1

ABSTRACT: Nonstorm water discharges to municipal separate storm sewer systems (MS4s) are notable for spatial and temporal variability in volume, pollutant type, pollutant concentration, and activity of origin. The objective of this paper was to determine whether current technical knowledge and existing U.S. policy support an improved regulatory approach. The proposed policy would use type of discharge as a regulatory basis, merging the concepts of allowability of de minimis discharges and type-based statewide consistent rules. Specific research objectives were to comprehensively identify discharge types, characterize their prevalence in California, analyze relevant local and regional regulatory guidelines, and systematically evaluate opinions of experts about potential water quality impacts. Results demonstrate nonstorm water discharges were widespread in at least one sector, industrial facilities subject to a state permit; one discharge for every four facilities was reported in 1995, even though the permit explicitly prohibits such discharges. Clear consensus exists for minimal water quality concern for some discharge types when considering both municipal guidelines and experts’ opinions. In particular, condensate from a wide range of equipment and discharges from fire fighting equipment testing were found to be of low concern. Discharge types with consensus high concern were largely limited to discharges prohibited under other regulations, such as wastewater and hazardous waste management controls. Some discharge types where no consensus was identified, such as landscape irrigation, nevertheless generated concern for water quality impacts and appear to be relatively widespread. Available information supports technical feasibility of the proposed policy because at least some discharge types show strong consensus for de minimis impacts among regulatory guidelines and opinions of technical experts.     

AN EXTENSION INFORMATION PROGRAM TO IMPROVE RESIDENTIAL WELL WATER QUALITY1

ABSTRACT: Older inland lake communities in Wisconsin are more likely than many areas to have degraded water supplies. Many home sites are on sandy soils with high water tables and have shallow wells close to their own or a neighbor's septic system. Yet unless major rehabilitation is undertaken, these homes are relatively exempt from local codes and regulations. They also are beyond the application of the federal Clean Drinking Water Act. An Extension education program was created in response to the problem. At a community's request, home drinking water “screening tests” are conducted for at least coliform bacteria, chlorides, and nitrate/nitrite-N. Test results, together with explanations and recommendations are reported at a local meeting. Public response has been positive, and a surprising number of wells appear to be contaminated to some degree.     

PHOSPHORUS MANAGEMENT TO PROTECT LAKE WATER QUALITY1

ABSTRACT: The Hallett Quarry gravel pit lakes are an active sand and gravel extraction operation located 0.4 km north of the City of Ames, Iowa. During periods of drought, these lakes serve as a supplemental water supply for Ames. A modified version of the Vollenweider input-output model was used to predict future water quality under various watershed land use, drainage, and lake configurations. The dominant factor controlling the future water quality of the lakes was found to be the nutrient input. It is recommended that a management plan to protect the future water quality should be oriented towards reducing the sources of phosphorus to the lakes.     

A NET BENEFIT MODEL FOR RECREATION PLANNING AT DRINKING WATER RESERVOIRS1

A management model was developed for determining levels of recreation activities at public drinking water reservoirs. Quabbin Reservoir, located in central Massachusetts, served as a case study for the model. An interdisciplinary research team was formed to study the impact of selected recreation activities on water quality, public demand and willingness to pay for selected recreation activities, carrying capacity constraints, and the economic cost/benefits associated with increases in recreation at the Quabbin Reservation. Study variables were integrated into a quadratic programming model, producing the number of participants that corresponds to maximum net benefits for specific development packages on design days. The recreation mix associated with maximum net economic benefits was found to be cost-effective (assuming the use of reasonable entrance fees) and not deleterious to water quality. However, as a result of the findings of a related study, it was recommended that nutrients, particularly from wastewater, not be permitted to enter the reservoir, since the current phosphorous level may be at a critical point. Management techniques that would safeguard against this occurrence were recommended. The model was sensitive to management objectives; recommendations were limited to activities that would not lower the existing high quality of Quabbin water.     

KNOWLEDGE UTILIZATION IN WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE NETHERLANDS RELATED TO DESICCATION1

ABSTRACT: The use of scientific knowledge in environmental policy making is an important topic. However, the relation between knowledge producers and policy makers is not a straightforward producer-user relationship. The development of a national desiccation policy in the Netherlands and the implementation of desiccation plans in local situations are used as a case study to investigate the knowledge policy relationship. Three theoretical explanations were used to analyze this case: a difference between the cultures of producers and users; a different rationality of the policy making and research processes; and processes of social construction of problem definitions which imply that different knowledge stocks are used depending on the framing of the policy problem. Emergence of the policy issue at the national level is demonstrated to develop in close interaction between knowledge producers and policy makers, while the interactions at the local level were more based on integration of expert knowledge through personal expertise and closely tied to the development of management plans. This case study thus reveals a difference between general knowledge supporting measures at the national policy level and the way in which specific knowledge is applied in local cases. Therefore more attention should be paid to the translation of policy problems from rather high levels of political authority to the conceptualization at lower management levels. A final conclusion is that knowledge use in Dutch desiccation policy can be understood by pointing to multiple theoretical perspectives. The rational actor model and a construc-tivist perspective turned out to be especially useful in explaining the different ways knowledge was used at the national and the local level.     

IMPACT OF THERMAL STANDARDS ON POWER PLANT WATER CONSUMPTION1

Power plant water consumption (evaporative water loss) for various river temperature standards is presented for existing and proposed power plants located along the Missouri and Upper Mississippi Rivers in the MAPP geographical area. Thermodynamic and economic models are combined to evaluate the cooling related water consumption at various river thermal standards. The existing thermal standards and a number of other hypothetical thermal regulations including the extreme cases of no thermal standards and no allowable heated discharges are examined to show the dependence on thermal standards of power production related water consumption. A critical appraisal of the cost of thermal standards in terms of water consumption is thereby possible so that subjective assessments of the standards can proceed with full knowledge of the tradeoffs involved between the “water costs” of power production and environmental enhancement.     

SIMULATION AS AN AID TO DECISION MAKING IN A WATER UTILITY1

ABSTRACT. Middle and high management levels within water utilities would find their decision making activities greatly enhanced if provided with a set of techniques having the following characteristics: (1) the ability to procure information and knowledge about real-life systems, (2) the ability to promote analysis of the real life system and (3) the capacity to gauge the impact of decisions. A model/simulation is presented, having the capability to mime operational aspects of water supply systems. The simulation produces time series of what are considered relevant operational variables. These series are amenable to analysis of both static and dynamic effects of alternative policies, changing environmental conditions and varying parametric specifications. Because of its modular structure and the ad hoc programming language utilized, it offers great flexibility. The model/simulation allows extensions, deletions and modifications without consequent reformulation or extensive reprogramming. It performs a number of statistical tests useful for its own verification and validation. Also available are a suggested methodology and procedures for model use, possible difficulties with data gathering and operation, plus an idea of what cannot be done with the currently extant model version.     

IMPACTS OF RECREATION ON RIPARIAN SOILS AND VEGETATION1

ABSTRACT: The seemingly magnetic attraction of water resources for recreation has direct implications for proximate land resources which are needed to provide access and support facilities. This paper reviews and synthesizes the literature dealing with the impacts of recreation use on riparian soils and vegetation. Part one of the paper sets forth the major negative impacts of recreation use on soils and vegetation. A seven-step soil impact cycle is identified, beginning with the scuffing away of leaf litter and other organic material and working through the soil erosion and sedimentation process. Four major kinds of impacts of recreation use on vegetation are then outlined, and the‘Vicious circle” relationship between impacts on soil and vegetation is demonstrated through a Soil/Vegetation Impact Diagram. Part two identifies several spatial and temporal patterns of environmental impact caused by recreation use. The node and linkage pattern of recreation use, campground and trail expansion, ground cover response and succession, rates of soil compaction, and resource response to various intensities of recreation use are important aspects. The final part of the paper deals with measuring environmental impacts caused by recreation use. Management implications of the research findings are considered throughout the paper.     

WATER DEMAND AT WESTERN U.S. RECREATION DEVELOPMENTS1

Although the volume of potable water used at recreation developments is minor relative to total regional water use, very high quality is required and the source is often of limited capacity, such as a mountain spring or small local aquifer. Frequent confrontations between developers and regulatory agencies result from claims by developers that water demand will be very small while regulators tend to treat such developments the same as municipal residence. Almost no published data base exists for resolving such conflicts. Included here are: 1) Water use measurements of various peak period durations (seasonal, monthly, daily, and instantaneous) at several types of recreational developments in Utah and Wyoming (mountain cabins, both ski- and water-based condominiums, and recreation vehicle campgrounds), 2) statistical (frequency) analysis of the data and a comparison with municipal demands in the same region, and 3) analysis of occupancy rates at the various categories of developments.     

USE OF CLIMATE PREDICTIONS TO DECIDE A WATER MANAGEMENT PROBLEM1

ABSTRACT: Seasonal precipitation predictions were utilized in a water management decision with major economic, societal, and political ramifications. A summer (1984) drought had created a situation calling for possible fall season use of state waters from two major multipurpose reservoirs with an ensuing effect on water price negotiations. Choices facing management and use of water from the reservoirs were to invoke expensive water restrictions with a 33 percent chance of being right, do nothing (66 percent chance of wrong outcome), or use the precipitation predictors (for above normal fall rain) having a 50 percent chance of error. Hydrologists chose to follow the precipitation predictions, which proved to be accurate for the fall of 1984, helping to reveal the long-term value of using well understood climate predictions in water management.     

ONTARIO'S WATER TAKING PERMIT PROGRAM1

ABSTRACT. Most water takings in Ontario in excess of 10,000 gallons per day for purposes other than domestic, farm, or fire fighting require authorization by permit by the Ontario Ministry of the Environment. The legislation imposes control beyond that under common law, but does not remove common-law obligations. Permits may not be assigned without the Ministry's consent and do not create property rights in water. Permits to take ground-water require permittees to ensure that sufficient water is made available for the needs of prior users who suffer serious water-supply interference due to the taking, or to reduce the rate and amount of taking. Permits to take surface water require permittees to maintain sufficient downstream flow to protect downstream uses of water and natural functions of streams. Specific permit requirements for city wells in the rural Hunsburger Creek basin protect existing well supplies and require maintenance of streamflow for pond levels and fish. Tobacco irrigation in the Big Creek basin reduced streamflow significantly and requires development of more detailed water-management plans for years of extreme demand. Ontario's permit program serves to resolve water-use conflicts, furnishes information on use and provides one means for implementing management plans.     

IMPACTS OF WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT ON SITE VISITATION: A PROBABILISTIC MODELING APPROACH1

ABSTRACT: The influence of perceptions of water quality on the likelihood of recreating at a particular recreation site is investigated using a logit model. The model is estimated for St. Albans Bay, Vermont. A hypothetical improvement in water quality was shown to greatly increase the probability of at least one visit to the bay during a season. This implies that many recreationists who do not use the bay at present will do so if water quality improves. A demand model for predicting site visitation must, therefore, include current nonusers in the sample. Failure to do so would result in misleading predictions about future demand for the bay.     

TEMPORARY WATER TRANSFERS FOR DRY-YEAR WATER SUPPLY1

ABSTRACT: Temporary transfers of water for dry year water supply are analyzed for cost and operational feasibility. The temporary transfer is implemented as part of a water rights option agreement (WROA) between a lesson and a lessee. First, engineering analysis determines the technical feasibility and operations plan under the Colorado doctrine of prior appropriation. The cost of the WROA to a water utility is estimated. Other considerations in the agreement are discussed. The WROA is compared to other dry-year supply alternatives using a water system simulation model to obtain expected cost and operational performance characteristics.     

WATER QUALITY IN MOUNTAIN RECREATIONAL AREAS1

ABSTRACT: Several seasons of water quality study in the eastern Sierra Nevada have provided much useful information. One study element focused in detail on a representative drainage: Bishop Creek, from sampled locations at 12,800 feet to the Owens River at 4,000 feet. Sub-studies ranged from geohydrology, through chemical and bacterial quality, to benthic ecology. A coordinated study also was made of spatial patterns of use. A second element focused on non-point source monitoring the length of the Inyo National Forest. From physical, chemical, and bacterial standpoints, water quality is generally very good. Strains of pathogenic bacteria have been confirmed, and substantial further work to establish the importance of their presence is needed. Recreational use survey results have been analyzed to produce a methodology permitting management of the resource as needed. In addition, basic policy recommendations to easily minimize risk have been developed.