Toxicity of arsenate and arsenite on germination, seedling growth and amylolytic activity of wheat

Effects of different concentrations of arsenite and arsenate (0-16 mg/l) on seed germination, relative root length and shoot height, arsenic accumulation in young seedlings, alpha-amylase, beta-amylase and total amylolytic activity in wheat were investigated in order to elucidate the toxicity of arsenic in the early developmental stage. Germination percentages of different wheat varieties had different responses to arsenic species and decreased significantly with increasing arsenic concentrations except Duokang 1. Relative root length (RRL) and relative shoot height (RSH) of wheat seedlings decreased with increasing concentrations of arsenite and arsenate. The relative root lengths were correlated with the relative shoot heights for arsenite (r2 = 0.79) and arsenate (r2 = 0.77). Arsenic uptake by seedlings increased with the increasing concentrations of arsenite or arsenate and followed the Michaelis-Menten kinetics function. The average total amylolytic activity and beta-amylase activity had no significant difference comparable to that of controls at the concentration 2 mg/l arsenite or arsenate, but decreased apparently when the concentration was higher than 2 mg/l. Whereas the alpha-amylase activity decreased with increasing concentrations of arsenite or arsenate over the whole concentration range. Arsenite decreased all the endpoints more remarkably than arsenate. In comparison, shoot height and root length were more sensitive to arsenic than other endpoints and might be used as indicators for arsenic toxicity.     

Arsenic speciation, and arsenic and phosphate distribution in arsenic hyperaccumulator Pteris vittata L. and non-hyperaccumulator Pteris ensiformis L

This study examined the roles of arsenic translocation and reduction, and P distribution in arsenic detoxification of Pteris vittata L. (Chinese Brake fern), an arsenic hyperaccumulator and Pteris ensiformis L. (Slender Brake fern), a non-arsenic hyperaccumulator. After growing in 20% Hoagland solution containing 0, 133 or 267 microM of sodium arsenate for 1, 5 or 10 d, the plants were separated into fronds, rhizomes, and roots. They were analyzed for biomass, and concentrations of arsenate (AsV), arsenite (AsIII) and phosphorus. Arsenic in the fronds of P. vittata was up to 20 times greater than that of P. ensiformis, yet showing no toxicity symptoms as did in P. ensiformis. While arsenic was concentrated primarily in the fronds of P. vittata as arsenite it was mainly concentrated in the roots of P. ensiformis as arsenate. Arsenic reduction in the plants took longer than 1-d. P. vittata maintained greater P in the roots while P. ensiformis in the fronds. The high arsenic tolerance of the hyperaccumulator P. vittata may be attributed to its ability to effectively reduce arsenate to arsenite in the fronds, translocate arsenic from the roots to fronds, and maintain a greater ratio of P/As in the roots.     

Accumulation, transformation, and release of inorganic arsenic by the freshwater cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa

Arsenic (As) as a major hazardous metalloid was affected by phytoplankton in many aquatic environments. The toxic dominant algae Microcystis aeruginosa was exposed to different concentrations of inorganic arsenic (arsenate or arsenite) for 15 days in BG11 culture media. Arsenic accumulation, toxicity, and speciation in M. aeruginos as well as the changes of As species in media were examined. M. aeruginosa has a general well tolerance to arsenate and a definite sensitivity to arsenite. Additionally, arsenate actively elevated As methylation by the algae but arsenite definitely inhibited it. Interestingly, the uptake of arsenite was more pronounced than that of arsenate, and it was correlated to the toxicity. Arsenate was the predominant species in both cells and their growth media after 15 days of exposure to arsenate or arsenite. However, the amount of the methylated As species in cells was limited and insignificantly affected by the external As concentrations. Upon uptake of the inorganic arsenic, significant quantities of arsenate as well as small amounts of arsenite, DMA, and MMA were produced by the algae and, in turn, released back into the growth media. Bio-oxidation was the first and primary process and methylation was the minor process for arsenite exposures, while bioreduction and the subsequent methylation were the primary metabolisms for arsenate exposures. Arsenic bioaccumulation and transformation by M. aeruginosa in aquatic environment should be paid more attention during a period of eutrophication.     

Arsenic uptake and speciation and the effects of phosphate nutrition in hydroponically grown kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum Hochst)

Background

This work focuses on the accumulation and mobility properties of arsenic (As) and the effects of phosphate (P) on its movement in Pennisetum clandestinum Hochst (kikuyu grass), grown hydroponically under increasing arsenate (As(V)) concentrations. The uptake of both ions and the relative kinetics show that phosphate is an efficient competitive inhibitor of As(V) uptake. The P/As uptake rate ratios in roots indicate that P is taken up preferentially by P/As transporters. An arsenite (As(III)) efflux from roots was also found, but this decreased when the arsenate concentration in the solution exceeded 5???M.

Methods

Increases in both arsenite and arsenate concentrations in roots were observed when the arsenate concentration in the solution was increased, and the highest accumulation of As(III) in roots was found when plants were grown at 5???M As(V). The low ratios of As accumulated in shoots compared to roots suggest limited mobility of the metalloid within Kikuyu plants.

Results

The results indicate that arsenic resistance in kikuyu grass in conditions of moderate exposure is mainly dependent on the following factors: 1) phosphate nutrition: P is an efficient competitive inhibitor of As(V) uptake because of the higher selectivity of membrane transporters with respect to phosphate rather than arsenate; and 2) a detoxification mechanism including a reduction in both arsenate and arsenite root efflux.

Conclusions

The As tolerance strategy of Kikuyu limits arsenate uptake and As translocation from roots to shoots; therefore, this plant cannot be considered a viable candidate for use in the phytoextraction of arsenic from contaminated soils or water.     

Preconcentration of trace arsenite and arsenate with titanium dioxide nanoparticles and subsequent determination by silver diethyldithiocarbamate spectrophotometric method.

A novel method of preconcentration of trace arsenite and arsenate by using titanium dioxide nanoparticles as adsorbent was described. The concentrations of preconcentrated arsenite and arsenate were determined by a silver diethyldithiocarbamate spectrophotometric method without desorption. Batch adsorption experiments were carried out as a function of the pH, contact time, amount of titanium dioxide nanoparticles, and solution volume. In the pH range 5 to 6, adsorption rates of arsenite and arsenate were higher than 98%. The calibration coefficient was 0.9991, and the linear range was 0 to 100 microg/L. The developed method was precise, with the relative standard deviation <5% at concentration level of 10 microg/L, with a detection limit (3sigma, n=6) of 0.44 microg/L. The accuracy of the method for total arsenic was validated by standard reference materials (SRM 3103a) (National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland). The method was also applied to the analysis of arsenite and arsenate in natural water samples to verify the accuracy. The recovery values remained in a narrow range, from 95 to 103%.     

Influence of redox potential (Eh) on the availability of arsenic species in soils and soils amended with biosolid

A study was done on the influence of redox potential on the mobility and availability of the various arsenic chemical forms in a Mollisol soil from central Chile amended with biosolid. Arsenic availability was strongly dependent on the applied redox potential. As expected, under reducing conditions (-200 mV vs Hg/Hg(2)Cl(2)) arsenic availability increased significantly, and arsenic was found mainly as arsenite. On the contrary under oxidizing conditions (200 mV vs Hg/Hg(2)Cl(2)) arsenic solubility decreased markedly and was governed by the presence of arsenate. The greatest concentration of organic arsenic species was found under reducing conditions, which would indicate that methylated species may participate in the transformation of arsenate to arsenite. In biosolid-amended soils the concentrations of methylated species increased as a function of time under reducing conditions, which can be attributed to the greater microbial activity resulting from the organic matter supply from the biosolid to soil. In all the systems, a high concentration of As(V) was found under reducing conditions, indicating that the chemical kinetics for the conversion of arsenate to arsenite is slow. Along time, the content of As(V) increased in the control soils, which may be attributed to the possible dissolution of iron oxides and hydroxides under reducing conditions.     

Uptake and accumulation behaviour of angiosperms irrigated with solutions of different arsenic species

Uptake and metabolisation of arsenic as a function of both the plant type and the chemical form of arsenic were examined. For this purpose two different plant species (Silene vulgaris and Plantago major) were selected that differed in their vitality and accumulation behaviour on arsenic-loaded substrates. The plants were cultivated on soil and irrigated with aqueous solutions of an inorganic arsenic compound (arsenious acid) and an organic compound (dimethylarsinate). The arsenic species accumulated in the parts of the plants above ground were extracted by PLE and determined using IC-ICP-MS. The concentrations and metabolisation products of arsenic found in the extracts indicate different mechanisms of arsenic uptake and transformation in both angiosperms. The arsenic species pattern showed that S. vulgaris was more arsenic--tolerable than P. major which is attributed to a low arsenate to arsenite concentration ratio in the plant compartments. S. vulgaris was also able to demethylate and reduce dimethylarsinate to form arsenite in a high extent. P. major accumulated only eight times lower concentration of arsenic, and the arsenate to arsenite concentration ratio shifted to higher values. Metabolisation products of dimethylarsinate did not occur under the present experimental conditions. The vitality of the angiosperms seems to be very dependent on the ability of the plant to reduce arsenate to arsenite.     

High-level arsenite removal from groundwater by zero-valent iron

The objectives of this study were to conduct batch and column studies to (i) assess the effectiveness of zero-valent iron for arsenic remediation in groundwater, (ii) determine removal mechanisms of arsenic, and (iii) evaluate implications of these processes with regard to the stability of arsenic and long-term remedial performance of the permeable reactive barrier (PRB) technology. A high concentration arsenic solution (50 mg l(-1)) was prepared by using sodium arsenite (arsenic (III)) to simulate groundwater at a heavily contaminated Superfund site in the USA. Batch studies indicate that the removal of arsenic is a two-step reaction with fast initial disappearance of arsenite followed by a slow subsequent removal process. Flow-through columns were conducted at a flow rate of 17 ml h(-1) under reducing conditions for 6.6 mo. Kinetic analysis suggested that arsenic removal behaves as a zero-order reaction at high arsenic concentrations. Arsenic removal rate constants decreased with time and arsenic breakthrough was observed in the column study. Arsenic removal capacity of zero-valent iron was determined to be approximately 7.5 mg As/g Fe. Carbonate green rust was identified from the analysis of surface precipitates; arsenite uptake by green rust may be a major mechanism responsible for arsenic remediation by zero-valent iron. Analysis of HCl-extractable arsenic from iron samples indicated that approximately 28% of arsenic was in the form of arsenate suggesting that a surface oxidation process was involved in the arsenic removal with zero-valent iron.     

Studies on the accumulation and transformation of arsenic in freshwater organisms I. Accumulation, transformation and toxicity of arsenic compounds on the Japanese medaka, Oryzias latipes

Accumulation, transformation and toxicity of arsenic compounds to Japanese Medaka, Oryzias latipes were investigated. For sodium arsenite [As(II)] and disodium arsenate [As(V)], the mean value for 7-day lethal concentration LC50 for O. latipes were 14.6 and 30.3 mg As/l, respectively. Direct accumulation of arsenic in O. latipes increased as a function of As(III) concentration in water. A small proportion of accumulated arsenic was transformed to methylated arsenic. As much as 70% of the total arsenic accumulated in tissue was depurated. Accumulation and transformation of As(III) by O. latipes in a simple freshwater food chain were also investigated. The transformation of As(III) to As(V) by organisms was more prevalent than biomethylation of accumulated arsenic in organisms of the three steps of the food chain.     

Fluxes of inorganic and organic arsenic species in a Norway spruce forest floor

To identify the role of the forest floor in arsenic (As) biogeochemistry, concentrations and fluxes of inorganic and organic As in throughfall, litterfall and forest floor percolates at different layers were investigated. Nearly 40% of total As(total) input (5.3g Asha(-1)yr(-1)) was retained in Oi layer, whereas As(total) fluxes from Oe and Oa layers exceeded the input by far (10.8 and 20g Asha(-1)yr(-1), respectively). Except dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), fluxes of organic As decreased with depth of forest floor so that <10% of total deposition (all <0.3g Asha(-1)yr(-1)) reached the mineral soil. All forest floor layers are sinks for most organic As. Conversely, Oe and Oa layers are sources of As(total), arsenite, arsenate and DMA. Significant correlations (r>/=0.43) between fluxes of As(total), arsenite, arsenate or DMA and water indicate hydrological conditions and adsorption-desorption as factors influencing their release from the forest floor. The higher net release of arsenite from Oe and Oa and of DMA from Oa layer in the growing than dormant season also suggests microbial influences on the release of arsenite and DMA.     

Removal of hexafluoroarsenate from waters

Arsenic predominantly occurs in natural ground and surface waters as arsenate and arsenite. Other arsenic species can also be present in anthropogenically influenced waters. By means of a newly-developed speciation technique an arsenic compound was identified as hexafluoroarsenate at high concentration (about 0.8mgl(-1) as As) in a lake polluted by waste water from a former crystal glass factory. This compound shows a completely different behavior than common arsenite and arsenate in waters. However, respective literature data were little found regarding its environmental behavior as well as the applicable remediation technologies. Conventional arsenic treatment mechanisms, such as the well-known sorption to iron hydroxides, can not be used to remediate water with this compound. Hence, an effective method to remove hexafluoroarsenate from water was developed using its strong affinity to anion exchangers (strong basic exchangers with quaternary ammonium groups). The sorption can be described by a Langmuir isotherm and first-order kinetics with a half-life of about 10min. Interferences by sulphate and fluoride, present at much higher concentrations in the polluted lake water, might be expected due to the anion exchange mechanism, but were shown to be of minor importance.     

Arsenite-oxidizing and arsenate-reducing bacteria associated with arsenic-rich groundwater in Taiwan

Drinking highly arsenic-contaminated groundwater is a likely cause of blackfoot disease in Taiwan, but microorganisms that potentially control arsenic mobility in the subsurface remain unstudied. The objective of this study was to investigate the relevant arsenite-oxidizing and arsenate-reducing microbial community that exists in highly arsenic-contaminated groundwater in Taiwan. We cultured and identified arsenic-transforming bacteria, analyzed arsenic resistance and transformation, and determined the presence of genetic markers for arsenic transformation. In total, 11 arsenic-transforming bacterial strains with different colony morphologies and varying arsenic transformation abilities were isolated, including 10 facultative anaerobic arsenate-reducing bacteria and one strictly aerobic arsenite-oxidizing bacterium. All of the isolates exhibited high levels of arsenic resistance with minimum inhibitory concentrations of arsenic ranging from 2 to 200 mM. Strain AR-11 was able to rapidly oxidize arsenite to arsenate at concentrations relevant to environmental groundwater samples without the addition of any electron donors or acceptors. We provide evidence that arsenic-reduction activity may be conferred by the ars operon(s) that were not amplified by the designed primers currently in use. The 16S rRNA sequence analysis grouped the isolates into the following genera: Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Psychrobacter, Vibrio, Citrobacter, Enterobacter, and Bosea. Among these genera, we present the first report of the genus Psychrobacter being involved in arsenic reduction. Our results further support the hypothesis that bacteria capable of either oxidizing arsenite or reducing arsenate coexist and are ubiquitous in arsenic-contaminated groundwater.     

Uptake and biotransformation of arsenate in the lichen Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl

The uptake and metabolism of arsenate, As(V), as a function of time and concentration were examined in the lichen Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl. Lichen thalli were exposed to As(V) in the form of a solution. Exponential uptake of As(V) from 4 microg mL(-1) As(V) solution was accompanied by constant arsenite, As(III), excretion back into the solution. Arsenate taken up into the lichens from 0, 0.1, 1, 10 microg mL(-1) As(V) solutions was partially transformed into As(III), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) and (mono)methylarsonic acid (MA). 48 h after exposure, the main arsenic compound in the lichens was DMA in 0.1, As(III) in 1 and As(V) in 10 microg mL(-1) treatment. The proportion of methylated arsenic compounds decreased with increasing arsenate concentration in the exposure solution. These results suggest that at least two types of As(V) detoxification exist in lichens; arsenite excretion and methylation.     

Arsenic accumulation and speciation in the submerged macrophyte Ceratophyllum demersum L.

Introduction

Ceratophyllum demersum L. is a widespread submerged macrophyte in aquatic environments.

Methods

Simulation experiments were conducted in the laboratory to investigate arsenic (As) accumulation, speciation, and efflux of C. demersum exposed to arsenate and arsenite solutions.

Results

Plant shoots showed a significant accumulation of As with a maximum of 862 and 963???g?As?g^?1 dry weight after 4?days of exposure to 10???M arsenate and arsenite, respectively. Regardless of whether arsenate or arsenite was supplied to the plants, arsenite was the predominant species in plant shoots. Furthermore, a dramatically higher influx rate of arsenate compared with arsenite was observed in C. demersum exposed to As solutions without the addition of phosphate (P). Arsenate uptake was considerably inhibited by P in this study, suggesting that arsenate is taken up by C. demersum via the phosphate transporters. However, arsenite uptake was unaffected by P and markedly reduced in the presence of glycerol and antimonite (Sb), indicating arsenite shares the aquaporin transport pathway. In addition, C. demersum rapidly reduces arsenate to arsenite in the shoot of the plant and extrudes most of them (>60?%) to the external solutions. The efflux of arsenite was much higher than that of arsenate; the former is supposed to be both active and passive processes, and the latter through passive leakage.

Conclusion

C. demersum is a strong As accumulator and an interesting model plant to study As uptake and metabolism due to the lack of a root-to-shoot translocation barrier.     

Temporal and spatial variation of arsenic species in the Dahuofang reservoir in northeast China

Overlying water, pore water, and sediment samples were collected from the Dahuofang reservoir in November 2011 and April 2012, respectively. Total arsenic and arsenic species including arsenite, arsenate, monomethylarsonic, and dimethylarsinic were analyzed by ICP-MS and HPLC–ICP-MS. The results indicated that the environments of the Dahuofang reservoir were in reduced conditions, arsenite was the predominant species in pore water and sediments in the reservoir. Arsenic concentrations in overlying water were very low in all the samples but showed different trend during the different time. In November, arsenic concentrations in the reservoir inlet were higher than that in the other sites, whereas arsenic showed accumulation from the upstream to downstream of the reservoir in samples collected in April. In pore water, arsenic concentrations were about 23 and 37 times higher than those in overlying water in November and April, respectively, and relatively high levels of arsenite were also detected in the pore water. In surface sediments, total arsenic and arsenic species content in the reservoir inlet showed the following decreasing order: R1?>?R10?>?R4. The results also showed that moderate ecological risks exist in pore water and sediments in the Dahuofang reservoir.     

Arsenic species and leachability in the fronds of the hyperaccumulator Chinese brake (Pteris vittata L.)

Arsenic speciation is important not only for understanding the mechanisms of arsenic accumulation and detoxification by hyperaccumulators, but also for designing disposal options of arsenic-rich biomass. The primary objective of this research was to understand the speciation and leachability of arsenic in the fronds of Chinese brake (Pteris vittata L.), an arsenic hyperaccumulator, with an emphasis on the implications for arsenic-rich biomass disposal. Chinese brake was grown for 18 weeks in a soil spiked with 50 mg As kg(-1) as arsenate (AsO4(3-)), arsenite (AsO3(3-)), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), or methylarsonic acid (MMA). Plant samples were extracted with methanol/water (1:1) and arsenic speciation was performed using high performance liquid chromatography coupled with atomic fluorescence spectrometry. The impacts of air-drying on arsenic species and leachability in the fronds were examined in the laboratory. After 18 weeks, water-soluble arsenic in soil was mainly present as arsenate with little detectable organic species or arsenite regardless of arsenic species added to the soil. However, arsenic in the fronds was primarily present as inorganic arsenite with an average of 94%. Arsenite re-oxidation occurred in the old fronds and the excised dried tissues. Arsenic species in the fronds were slightly influenced by arsenic forms added to the soil. Air-drying of the fronds resulted in leaching of substantial amounts of arsenic. These findings can be of significance when looking at disposal options of arsenic-rich biomass from the point of view of secondary contamination.     

Rapid biotransformation of arsenic by a model protozoan Tetrahymena pyriformis GL-C. [corrected

Arsenic biomethylation and biovolatilization are thought to be two important metabolic pathways in aquatic and soil environments. Tetrahymena thermophila is a genus of free-living ciliated protozoan that is widely distributed in freshwater environments around the world. In this study, we studied arsenic accumulation, speciation, efflux, methylation and volatilization in this unicellular eukaryote exposed to various concentrations of arsenate. Our results show that T. thermophila accumulated 187 mg.kg⁻¹ dry weight of arsenic when exposed to 40 μM for 48 h, with MMAs(V) (monomethylarsenate) and DMAs(V) (dimethylarsenate) as the dominant species, accounting for 66% of the total arsenic. Meanwhile, arsenate, arsenite, MMAs(V) and DMAs(V) were detected in the culture medium; the last three were released by the cells. The production of volatile arsenic increased with increasing external As(V) concentrations and exposure time. To our knowledge, this is the first study on arsenic metabolism, particularly biomethylation and biovolatilization, in protozoa.     

Unusual arsenic speciation in sea anemones

Nine species of sea anemones (Anthopleura asiatica, Actinia equina, Actinodendron arboreum, Phymanthus loligo, Entacmaea actinostoloides, Stichodactyla gigantea, S. haddoni, S. mertensii and Metridium senile) contained arsenic in the range of 1.6-7.0microg As g(-1) (wet mass basis). Irrespective of the species, water-soluble arsenic compounds accounted for more than 80% of the total arsenic. Analysis of water-soluble arsenic compounds by LC/ESI-MS revealed that four arsenicals, arsenobetaine (AB), trimethylarsoniopropionate, arsenocholine (AC) and tetramethylarsonium ion (TEMA), are contained in most species but arsenate, methylarsonic acid, dimethylarsinic acid and trimethylarsine oxide are absent in all species. Interestingly, compositional patterns of the four arsenicals greatly differed from species to species. Only three species (S. gigantea, S. haddoni and M. senile) contained AB at the highest proportions, similar to the majority of marine animals. However, the remaining six species showed unusual compositional patterns of arsenic compounds; AC was most predominant in A. arboreum and P. loligo and TEMA in A. asiatica, A. equina, E. actinostoloides and S. mertensii. On the whole, high proportions (24.6-87.1% of the water-soluble arsenic) of TEMA appear to be a peculiar characteristic of many species of sea anemones. Thus, sea anemones are an important animal group in the arsenic cycling, especially in that they may be donors of TEMA to predators.     

Photocatalytic oxidation and removal of arsenite from water using slag-iron oxide-TiO2 adsorbent

Photocatalytic oxidation of arsenite and simultaneous removal of the generated arsenate from aqueous solution were investigated. The whole process was performed using an adsorbent developed by loading iron oxide and TiO2 on municipal solid waste melted slag. The loading was carried out through chemical reactions and high-temperature process. In the removal process, arsenite was first oxidized to arsenate, and then was removed by adsorption. The oxidation of arsenite was rapid, but the adsorption of the generated arsenate was slow. A concentration of 100 mg l(-1) arsenite could be entirely oxidized to arsenate within 3 h in the presence of the adsorbent and under UV-light irradiation, but the equilibrium adsorption of the generated arsenate needed 10 h. Arsenite could also be oxidized to arsenate only by UV-light, but the reaction rate was approximately 1/3 of that of the photocatalyzed reaction. Both acidic and alkaline conditions were favorable for the oxidation reaction, and the optimum pH value for the oxidation and adsorption was proposed to be around 3. To oxidize and remove original 20 mg l(-1) or 50 mg l(-1) arsenite from aqueous solution, the necessary adsorbent amount was 2 g l(-1) or 5 g l(-1), respectively. Furthermore, the surface properties of the adsorbent were examined and the oxidation mechanism of arsenite was discussed. It is believed that the adsorbent developed in this study is efficient, cost-effective and environment-friendly for application in arsenic-contaminated wastewater treatment.     

Total arsenic accumulation in edible pods and seeds of Phaseolus vulgaris.

The main objective of this study was to evaluate whether arsenic accumulated in the edible pods and seeds of Phaseolus vulgaris, cv. Helda, above the Spanish maximum recommended concentration for food crops, 1 mg kg(-1) on a fresh weight basis. Only organic arsenicals were used because they are: a) the only arsenic species allowed for agricultural applications and b) more mobile than inorganic species. Selection of French beans, a sensitive plant to arsenic, was based on the fact that arsenic upward translocation is higher in sensitive than in tolerant plants. A 2 x 3 factorial experiment was conducted with two organic arsenic species: methylarsonic acid (MAA) or dimethylarsinic acid (DMAA) and three arsenic concentrations: 0.2, 0.5, or 1.0 mg L(-1). Arsenic phytotoxicity was primarily determined by soluble arsenic concentration. Experimental results showed that the low bean plant tolerance to arsenic is possibly due to the high arsenic upward transport to shoots, which could result in profound negative metabolic consequences. Even under extremely adverse conditions, arsenic residues in edible beans were below the maximum statutory limit set by the Spanish legislation. It can be concluded that the major danger of organic arsenical herbicides is that of decreased productivity rather than high arsenic uptake by consumers.