青藏高原东部原始云杉林及其系列采伐迹地3个林地藓类种群结构与生物量的差异性评估

森林采伐对地表藓类种群的发育具有重要影响,但很少有人评估这种影响后迹地上的藓类种群状况.本研究调查了四川壤塘县4个系列采伐迹地和附近原始云杉林下3种林地优势藓类种群[锦丝藓(Actinothuidium hookeri)、塔藓(Hylocomium splendens)和大羽藓(Thuidium cymbifolium)]的发生频率和盖度、生物量以及维管束植物盖度和凋落物盖度,通过方差分析检验比较分析了3个藓类种群的盖度和生物量在不同采伐迹地及原始林之间的差异,评估了其自然发展趋势,揭示了维管束植物结构参数与藓类种群盖度和生物量之间的相互关系.发现:1)3种藓类种群的盖度和生物量在采伐迹地和附近原始林间有显著差异,但在系列采伐迹地之间没有明显差异,证实森林采伐后林生地表藓类种群显著衰退,随着迹地自然恢复进程这些藓类种群并未能逐渐恢复;2)微环境尺度上的藓类盖度和生物量在系列采伐迹地之间有较大的波动,Spearman相关分析显示乔木和草本层盖度是影响藓类种群生物量的主要因子.综合分析表明,采伐导致的环境变化以及藓类自身的牛态适应性和繁殖策略综合决定着藓类种群的自然恢复能力;如果仅仅依靠迹地自然恢复过程,顶极藓类种群(塔藓和锦丝藓)是难以自然复壮的.图6表4参44     

抚育对黄土高原人工油松林林下植被的影响

2015年3月旬邑县林业局开展了人工林抚育项目,对清水沟管护区内的人工林进行抚育,主要措施是卫生伐。为了探讨抚育对油松人工林林下植被的短期影响,本文以此抚育项目为研究基础,对黄土高原45 a人工油松林的抚育区和未抚育区进行研究,分析抚育1.5 a后人工油松林林下植被结构、物种多样性和生物量的变化情况,为黄土高原油松人工林的科学抚育提供理论依据及为抚育后长期动态的研究提供基础数据。结果表明,(1)抚育区和未抚育区林下植物种数分别为59种和49种。抚育区和未抚育区灌木层的Simpson指数、Shannon-Wiener指数和Pielou均匀度指数分别为0.786 0、2.069 6、0.734 4和0.777 9、2.028 6、0.712 3,无显著差异(P0.05);草本层的Simpson指数、Shannon-Wiener指数和Pielou均匀度指数分别为0.713 6、1.543 4、0.755 8和0.660 6、1.328 7、0.805 3,仅Shannon-Wiener指数差异显著(P0.05)。(2)抚育后,林下灌木层的盖度从74.16%下降到22.8%,草本层盖度由12.11%增加到33.8%;草本层密度由57 125 plant?hm~(-2)增加到155 595 plant?hm~(-2),灌木层密度由13 620 plant?hm~(-2)下降到12 780 plant?hm~(-2);灌木层生物量由1 377.62 kg?hm~(-2)减少到324.87kg?hm~(-2);草本层生物量由138.87 kg?hm~(-2)增加到371.69 kg?hm~(-2)。(3)抚育后林下植被生物量在各个器官和物种中的分配比例发生了明显变化。抚育后灌木层和草本层一些喜光或喜温暖湿润环境的物种的生物量贡献率增加;灌木层地下部分生物量与地上生物量比例显著增加,由0.86增加到1.62;而草本层与之相反,由1.43下降到0.92。从总体上看,人工抚育措施虽然降低了灌木层的生物量、盖度和密度,但是有助于灌木层的物种多样性和草本层的物种多样性、生物量、密度和盖度的增加。这些试验结果说明抚育对油松人工林林下植被的影响短期内主要表现在草本层植物上,对灌木层植物的影响较小。     

不同营林措施对林下层多样性和群落结构的影响

在人为活动干扰较为强烈的农林复合生态系统中,开展不同营林措施对林下层植物多样性和群落结构的影响研究,对于解决大尺度林下生境保护与小面积森林经营的矛盾问题具有重要的参考意义,也符合林区的现实需求。本研究针对东北国有林区的典型性和特殊性,于2013—2015年夏季调查了小兴安岭3种主要营林措施(割灌抚育、采伐和林下种植)对森林下层植物群落物种组成、结构特征、物种多样性及林下层生物量的影响。结果表明:草本层物种更容易受到人类管理活动的影响,其物种组成的变化大于灌木层的变化;3种经营措施都会降低灌草层盖度,种植样地灌草层高度和盖度下降最显著,相比对照组,其灌木和草本层盖度分别降了40%和54%;割灌时间越久,灌木层高度越高;3种经营措施均降低了物种多样性,其中种植作业的干扰最强烈,种植措施对灌木层的破坏高于草本层;生物量从高到低排序依次为2010年割灌样地、对照样地、采伐样地和种植样地,其值分别为2.1、2、1和0.4 kg?m~(-2)。本研究发现割灌抚育、采伐、林下种植等措施对森林下层植物组成、群落结构特征、物种多样性等方面均有不同程度的影响,整体而言,种植方式的干扰最为强烈。     

扎兰屯地区典型天然林群落特征及其相关性分析

为了解天然林的群落特征及其相关性,提升天然林的管理及生态防护功能,以大兴安岭扎兰屯天然落叶松(Larix gmelinii)纯林、白桦(Betula platyphylla)次生林、白桦-落叶松混交林为研究对象,分别对乔木层、灌木层和草本层的高度、胸径、冠幅、盖度等指标进行调查,分析群落结构特征,计算物种丰富度指数、多样性指数和均匀度指数,并进行主成分分析(PCA)。结果显示,(1)3个群落中落叶松林的乔木层树高、胸径和灌木层的地径、盖度均最高,草本层特征差异不显著(P0.05)。(2)落叶松林、白桦-落叶松林中平榛(Corylus heterophylla)和土庄绣线菊(Spiraea pubescens)的重要值均明显高于其他灌木树种;白桦林灌木层只有兴安柳(Salix hsinganica);3种林分草本层均以兴安苔草(Carex chinganensis)为优势种。(3)乔木层、灌木层的丰富度指数、Simpson指数和Shannon-Wiener指数均表现出:白桦-落叶松林落叶松林白桦次生林;草本层以落叶松林最为丰富,其Simpson指数、Shannon-Wiener指数均以白桦林为最大;乔木层、灌木层、草本层的Pielou指数均以白桦-落叶松林为最大。(4)PCA排序结果显示,随着林分郁闭度、乔木树高、胸径及灌木盖度、高度、基径的增大,灌木层植物的多样性指数和均匀度增加明显,草本层多样性降低;草本高度越高、盖度越大,草本层多样性指数、均匀度越高。研究表明:乔木层郁闭度、灌木层生长特征(盖度、高度和基径)是影响物种多样性的主因,林分群落特征与植物多样性存在相关性。     

闽西北地区不同龄组常绿阔叶混交林生态系统碳储量结构特征

选取福建西北部地区多群落类型组成的常绿阔叶混交林为研究对象,通过典型样地调查法,对生态系统各个层次进行取样调查,采用“相对生长法”计算乔木层生物量,灌木层、草本层和凋落物层采用全部收获法测得其生物量,对土壤层的调查采用剖面法加土钻法,代表性样品碳含量的测定采用重铬酸钾-外加热容量法。在此基础上,分析了该地区不同林龄常绿阔叶林生态系统碳储量及其格局特征,结果表明,（1）闽西北地区常绿阔叶林生态系统平均碳储量为260.63 t·hm-2。在每个发育阶段,各层片对整个生态系统碳储量的贡献率相对稳定,空间分布格局特征相似。幼龄林、中龄林、近熟林、成过熟林生态系统的碳储量分别为192.14、221.15、317.11和312.12 t·hm-2,基本表现出随林龄增加而逐渐增大的趋势。（2）乔木层、灌木层、草本层、凋落物层的平均碳质量分数分别为48.5%、46.9%、41.2%、44.0%,每个层片中,各器官的碳含量差异不大,乔木层、灌木层及草本层的碳质量分数表现出随层片高度降低而减小的趋势。土壤碳质量分数由表层到底层逐渐减小。0～10、10～20 cm土层碳质量分数均显著大于其余三个土层。（3）生物量碳储量在每个层片随着龄组不同,表现出不同的变化趋势。乔木层碳储量大小排序为近熟林﹥成过熟林﹥中龄林﹥幼龄林,灌木层与草本层在不同发育阶段的碳储量,均表现出以下规律：从幼龄林到中龄林不断增长,在中龄林达到最大值后,又随发育的进行显现出不断下降的趋势。随着地表凋落物现存量的不断增加,其碳储量也表现出幼龄林﹥中龄林﹥近熟林﹥成过熟林的趋势。土壤的平均碳储量为134.986 t·hm-2,随着林分发育,表现为成过熟林﹥近熟林﹥中龄林﹥幼龄林。     

南亚热带中幼龄针阔混交林碳储量及其分配格局

以南亚热带中幼龄针阔混交林为研究对象,通过典型样地调查法,对森林生态系统各个层次进行取样调查,采用12个样地实测数据和已有生物量模型相结合的方法计算乔木层生物量,灌木层、草本层和凋落物层采用全部收获法测得其生物量,对土壤层的调查采用剖面法加土钻法,代表性样品碳含量的测定采用重铬酸钾-水合加热法。在此基础上,分析了中幼龄针阔混交林碳储量及其分配格局。结果表明,主要造林树种树根、树杆、树枝和树叶碳含量均值分别为45.07%、46.73%、46.30%和47.72%。植物碳含量表现为乔木〉灌木〉草本。乔木碳储量占植被总碳储量比例介于63.38%-94.08%之间,灌木碳储量所占比例介于3.55%-12.67%之间,而草本碳储量仅介于为1.28%-23.95%之间,不同林龄段乔木和灌木碳储量均值随林龄的增加呈上升趋势,而草本碳储量呈下降趋势。土壤碳储量介于106.73-136.61 t·hm^-2之间,土壤碳储量随林龄的增加呈现出先降低后升高的趋势。针阔混交林总碳储量介于134.79-162.60 t·hm^-2之间,分配格局表现为土壤层〉植被层〉凋落物层。土壤层碳储量所占总碳储量比例范围为78.34%-94.45%,植被层所占比例介于4.84%-20.16%之间,凋落物层仅介于0.71%-1.50%之间,中幼龄针阔混交林碳储量主要以土壤固碳为主。研究结果为树种选择、人工林生态系统固碳潜力以及人工碳汇林的经营管理等研究提供科学参考。     

不同环境条件下3种药用苔藓生长情况比较

在不同环境条件下对大灰藓(Hypnum plumaeforme)、大羽藓(Thuidium cymbifolium)、金发藓(Polytri-chum commune)3种药用苔藓进行温棚栽培,通过对3种苔藓在3种基质、4种光照强度下的生长状况进行方差分析,结果表明:在3种不同生长基质下,大羽藓、金发藓的净增长长度均无显著性差异,在25%和50%遮光率遮阳网覆盖下3种基质对大灰藓的生长无显著影响,但在75%遮光率遮阳网覆盖下,3种基质对大灰藓的生长产生了影响;在环境温度和湿度相同的条件下,对照组无遮阳处理下3种苔藓在生长一段时间后都不同程度的出现枯萎死亡现象,光照强度为25%、50%、75%遮光率下3种苔藓的生长都有显著性差异.表2,参9     

干热河谷常见植物地表形态特征与泥沙拦截的关系

为探究植物的泥沙拦截能力及其与植物地表形态特征的关系,以金沙江干热河谷区6种典型植物[乔木:新银合欢(Leucaena leucocephala)、苦楝(Melia azedarach);灌木:坡柳(Dodonaea viscose)、马桑(Coriaria sinica);草本:扭黄茅(Heteropogon contortus)、拟金茅(Eulaliopsis binate)]为研究对象,进行水槽模拟试验.结果表明:(1)在水槽模拟试验下,6种植物初生苗和1年生苗均表现出不同的泥沙拦截能力.在初生苗期,马桑的泥沙拦截能力最强,扭黄茅和拟金茅最弱;在1年生期,马桑仍为泥沙拦截能力最强的植物,草本植物次之,乔木和坡柳最弱.(2)6种植物在初生和1年生时均表现出不同的地表茎形态特征、地表叶片形态特征、基部拦截体形态特征以及地上部分生物量的变化.(3)泥沙拦截量与植物贴地叶面积、基部最大冠长、基部最大冠宽、整体地上部分生物量和基部茎干物质密度呈极显著正相关,与茎-地面夹角呈极显著负相关,以上参数为影响植物泥沙拦截能力的主要地表形态特征因子.此外,植物基部茎表皮裂隙数、基部茎干物质含量、贴地叶片干物质含量和基部单位体积生物量与泥沙拦截量也具有显著的相关性.本研究认为该地区在采用植物措施治理水土流失和拦截泥沙时,应重点考虑上述植物关键形态因子以选取最优的植物种类.     

川西高山森林生态系统林下生物量及其随林窗的变化特征

作为森林生态系统的重要组成部分,林下植被及其残体的分布受到林冠层的影响,但迄今有关林窗对林下植被和残体生物量的影响尚无研究报道.于2013 年8 月2 日至20 日,以海拔3 600 m 的川西岷江冷杉原始林林下植被为研究对象,根据区域内的坡向和林分组成等因素设置3 个100 m×100 m 的典型样地,调查其生物量及其随林窗的变化特征.在每个样地内选择3 个大林窗,在林窗、林缘和林下分别设置3 个20 m×20 m 的样方,调查粗木质残体长度或高度、大小头直径、枯立木记录胸径、腐烂等级等;在林窗、林缘和林下分别设置3 个5 m×5 m 的样方,采用“收获法”收集样方内直径在2.5-10 cm之间的细木质残体和灌木生物量;在林窗、林缘和林下分别设置3 个1 m×1 m 的样方来调查凋落物储量和草本生物量;在1m×1 m 的样方内随机选择1 个20 cm×20 cm 的小样方来调查地被植物生物量.结果表明,（1）川西高山森林生态系统总生物量为72.75 t·hm^-2,其中林下生物量为67.92 t·hm^-2,占生态系统生物量的95.17%.活体植被以灌木为主,其生物量为9.81t·hm^-2;残体部分以粗木质残体为主,其储量为53.00 t·hm^-2;（2）林窗对灌木、草本、地被植物的影响各不相同,且不同物种的灌木生物量表现出不同的分布规律;草本生物量表现出明显的“边缘效应”,在林缘显著高于林下;林窗和林缘的地被植物生物量相对较低;（3）粗木质残体储量从林下到林窗呈现减小的趋势,但总体储量仍然较大,林窗和林缘的细木质残体储量高于林下.这些结果为认识高山森林生态系统林下生物量及其格局,以及林窗在森林生态系统的重要作用提供了基础理论依据.     

33 a生福建柏人工林群落能量的研究

在福建三明对33 a生福建柏和杉木群落能量的研究结果表明福建柏群落和杉木群落干重热值和去灰分热值均以树叶最高,最低的为草本叶和茎或草本根;两个群落不同层次干重热值和去灰分热值的大小均为乔木层>林褥层>灌木层>草本层;两个群落乔木层干重热值和去灰分热值均以干皮最低. 两个群落不同组分灰分含量差异悬殊,最高的均为草本叶和茎,最低的均为干材. 福建柏的干重热值、去灰分热值、灰分含量均高于杉木,表明福建柏生成单位重量生物量的能量耗费比杉木多. 福建柏群落的能量现存量、年净增量、年归还量(通过凋落物)、年净固定量分别是杉木群落的0.97倍、1.65倍、1.15倍和1.36倍. 福建柏群落的太阳能转化效率为1.42%,而杉木群落为1.04%. 林下植被虽然能量现存量仅占群落的很小一部分,但在能量流动中占有重要地位,林下植被的能量流动速率比乔木层大得多,这对维持和提高地力较为有利. 33 a生福建柏群落仍然具有较大的能量年净增量,轮伐期应比杉木长;具有较高的能量流动速率,地力维护的能力也较强,是优良的造林树种. 福建柏经营密度应适当降低,发育群落林下植被以改良地力. 表5 参12     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Sexual Predators,Energy Development,and Conservation in Greater Yellowstone

Abstract: In the United States, as elsewhere, a growing debate pits national energy policy and homeland security against biological conservation. In rural communities the extraction of fossil fuels is often encouraged because of the employment opportunities it offers, although the concomitant itinerant workforce is often associated with increased wildlife poaching. We explored possible positive and negative factors associated with energy extraction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), an area known for its national parks, intact biological diversity, and some of the New World's longest terrestrial migrations. Specifically, we asked whether counties with different economies—recreation (ski), agrarian (ranching or farming), and energy extractive (petroleum)—differed in healthcare (gauged by the abundance of hospital beds) and in the frequency of sexual predators. The absolute and relative frequency of registered sex offenders grew approximately two to three times faster in areas reliant on energy extraction. Healthcare among counties did not differ. The strong conflation of community dishevel, as reflected by in‐migrant sexual predators, and ecological decay in Greater Yellowstone is consistent with patterns seen in similar systems from Ecuador to northern Canada, where social and environmental disarray exist around energy boomtowns. In our case, that groups (albeit with different aims) mobilized campaigns to help maintain the quality of rural livelihoods by protecting open space is a positive sign that conservation can matter, especially in the face of rampant and poorly executed energy extraction projects. Our findings further suggest that the public and industry need stronger regulatory action to instill greater vigilance when and where social factors and land conversion impact biological systems.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.