Effects of Livestock Grazing on Stand Dynamics and Soils in Upland Forests of the Interior West

Many ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer forests of the western, interior United States have undergone substantial structural and compositional changes since settlement of the West by Euro-Americans. Historically, these forests consisted of widely spaced, fire-tolerant trees underlain by dense grass swards. Over the last 100 years they have developed into dense stands consisting of more fire-sensitive and disease-susceptible species. These changes, sometimes referred to as a decline in "forest health," have been attributed primarily to two factors: active suppression of low-intensity fires (which formerly reduced tree recruitment, especially of fire-sensitive, shade-tolerant species), and selective logging of larger, more fire-tolerant trees. A third factor, livestock grazing, is seldom discussed, although it may be as important as the other two factors. Livestock alter forest dynamics by (1) reducing the biomass and density of understory grasses and sedges, which otherwise outcompete conifer seedlings and prevent dense tree recruitment, and (2) reducing the abundance of fine fuels, which formerly carried low-intensity fires through forests. Grazing by domestic livestock has thereby contributed to increasingly dense western forests and to changes in tree species composition. In addition, exclosure studies have shown that livestock alter ecosystem processes by reducing the cover of herbaceous plants and litter, disturbing and compacting soils, reducing water infiltration rates, and increasing soil erosion.     

Impacts of Livestock Grazing and Tree Clearing on Birds of Woodland and Riparian Habitats

Abstract:  We investigated the impact of pastoral management on birds in subtropical grassy eucalypt woodland in southeastern Queensland, Australia, where the patterns of land management have made it possible to disentangle the effects of livestock grazing from those of tree clearing. We recorded changes in bird species composition, density, and relative abundance across two woodland habitat types (riparian and nonriparian) and two levels of clearing (wooded and nonwooded) and three levels of livestock grazing (low, moderate, and high) replicated over space (1000 km²) and time (2001–2002). We predicted that species that depend on understory vegetation would be most negatively affected by livestock grazing. A Bayesian generalized linear model showed that the level of grazing had the greatest effect when trees were present. When trees were absent, the impact of grazing was overshadowed by the effects of a lack of trees. Over 65% of species responded to different levels of grazing, and the abundance of 42% of species varied markedly with habitat and grazing. The most common response to grazing was high species relative abundance under low levels of grazing (28% of species), species absence at high levels of grazing (20%), and an increase in abundance with increasing grazing (18%). Despite having similar bird assemblages, the effect of grazing was stronger in riparian habitat than in adjacent woodland habitat. Our results suggest that any level of commercial livestock grazing is detrimental to some woodland birds, particularly the understory-dependant species, as predicted. Nevertheless, provided trees are not cleared, a rich and abundant bird fauna can coexist with moderate levels of grazing. Habitats with high levels of grazing, on the other hand, resulted in a species-poor bird assemblage dominated by birds that are increasing in abundance nationally .     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Pyric Herbivory: Rewilding Landscapes through the Recoupling of Fire and Grazing

Abstract:  Our understanding of fire and grazing is largely based on small-scale experimental studies in which treatments are uniformly applied to experimental units that are considered homogenous. Any discussion of an interaction between fire and grazing is usually based on a statistical approach that ignores the spatial and temporal interactions on complex landscapes. We propose a new focus on the ecological interaction of fire and grazing in which each disturbance is spatially and temporally dependent on the other and results in a landscape where disturbance is best described as a shifting mosaic (a landscape with patches that vary with time since disturbance) that is critical to ecological structure and function of many ecosystems. We call this spatiotemporal interaction pyric herbivory (literal interpretation means grazing driven by fire). Pyric herbivory is the spatial and temporal interaction of fire and grazing, where positive and negative feedbacks promote a shifting pattern of disturbance across the landscape. We present data we collected from the Tallgrass Prairie Preserve in the southern Great Plains of North America that demonstrates that the interaction between free-roaming bison ( Bison bison ) and random fires promotes heterogeneity and provides the foundation for biological diversity and ecosystem function of North American and African grasslands. This study is different from other studies of fire and grazing because the fires we examined were random and grazing animals were free to roam and select from burned and unburned patches. For ecosystems across the globe with a long history of fire and grazing, pyric herbivory with any grazing herbivore is likely more effective at restoring evolutionary disturbance patterns than a focus on restoring any large vertebrate while ignoring the interaction with fire and other disturbances .     

保靖县油桐林分混交模式及其生态经济效益

湖南省保靖县是我国主要的油桐产区之一。针对该县多年来由于油桐林分结构单一而产生的诸多生态和经济问题，提出了桐树混交、桐灌混交和桐草混交三种改造模式，并对其生态和经济效益进行了分析。     

Death Rides the Forest: Perceptions of Fire, Land Use, and Ecological Restoration of Western Forests

Abstract:  Large wild fires occurring in forests, grasslands, and chaparral in the last few years have aroused much public concern. Many have described these events as "catastrophes" that must be prevented through aggressive increases in forest thinning. Yet the real catastrophes are not the fires themselves but those land uses, in concert with fire-suppression policies that have resulted in dramatic alterations to ecosystem structure and composition. The first step in the restoration of biological diversity (forest health) of western landscapes must be to implement changes in those factors that have caused degradation or are preventing recovery. This includes changes in policies and practices that have resulted in the current state of wildland ecosystems. Restoration entails much more than simple structural modifications achieved though mechanical means. Restoration should be undertaken at landscape scales and must allow for the occurrence of dominant ecosystem processes, such as the natural fire regimes achieved through natural and/or prescribed fires at appropriate temporal and spatial scales.     

茂兰喀斯特地区原始林凋落物量动态与养分归还

于2007年9月至2008年8月对茂兰喀斯特地区原始林凋落物进行观测,分析了凋落物总量、组分(叶、枝、繁殖器官和其他)凋落量和各组分不同养分含量的月动态变化及养分归还量。结果表明,凋落物月动态变化表现为常绿落叶阔叶混交林一般具有的双峰模式,凋落高峰出现在9至次年1月和4月;年凋落物量为6.9 t·hm-2,其中叶、枝、繁殖器官和其他组分的年凋落物量分别占年凋落物总量的71.0%、15.9%、1.5%和11.6%;凋落物各养分含量以C、Ca和N为主,无明显的月动态规律,养分年归还量由大到小依次为C、Ca、N、Mg、K和P,此与一般非喀斯特地区森林(由大到小依次为C、N、Ca、K、Mg和P)不同;凋落物各组分养分元素含量存在差异,凋落枝N、Mg、P和K含量较低,其他组分C、N、P和Mg含量较高,繁殖器官C、N和Ca含量较低;凋落物中Ca和Mg含量以及Ca和Mg年归还量远高于一般非喀斯特地区森林;K含量及K年归还量低于非喀斯特地区,说明该地区K的缺乏可能制约着喀斯特地区植被的生长。     

Range Size and Extinction Risk in Forest Birds

Abstract:  Small geographical range size is the single best predictor of threat of extinction in terrestrial species. Knowing how small a species' range has to be before authorities consider it threatened with extinction would allow prediction of a species' risk from continued deforestation and warming climates and provide a baseline for conservation and management strategies aspiring to mitigate these threats. To determine the threshold at which forest-dependent bird species become threatened with extinction, we compared the range sizes of threatened and nonthreatened species. In doing so, we present a simple, repeatable, and practical protocol to quantify range size. We started with species' ranges published in field guides or comparable sources. We then trimmed these ranges, that is, we included only those parts of the ranges that met the species' requirements of elevation and types of forest preferred. Finally, we further trimmed the ranges to the amount of forest cover that remains. This protocol generated an estimate of the remaining suitable range for each species. We compared these range estimates with those from the World Conservation Union Red List. We used the smaller of the two estimates to determine the threshold, 11,000 km², below which birds should be considered threatened. Species considered threatened that have larger ranges than this qualified under other (nonspatial) red list criteria. We identified a suite of species (18) that have not yet qualified as threatened but that have perilously small ranges—about 11% of the nonthreatened birds we analyzed. These birds are likely at risk of extinction and reevaluation of their status is urgently needed.     

森林土壤有机层生化特性及其对气候变化的响应研究进展

森林土壤有机层是指累积在土壤表面未分解到完全分解的有机残余物质,在全球碳循环中具有十分重要的作用和地位.目前有关森林土壤有机层的生态研究主要集中于土壤有机层的凋落物储量、水土保持功能、生物多样性保育功能及其生化特性等,而有关其对气候变化响应的研究报道还相当少见,且已有的研究主要关于土壤有机层的碳源/汇动态等,有关森林土壤有机层生化特性对气候变化响应的研究还相对较少,这与其在全球气候变化中的作用和地位是极不相称的.过去10a中,有关土壤有机层生化特性对气候变化响应的研究主要包括土壤有机层的微生物数量、微生物生物量、呼吸作用、有机物质分解动态(凋落物分解)、酶活性等对环境变化的响应等方面.进一步的控制实验研究被认为是相当重要的.参51     

川西亚高山白桦林小气候的时空动态特征

对川西亚高山白桦林(海拔2 540 m)内太阳辐射、空气温湿度以及土壤5 cm和15 cm层温度等进行了连续的定位观测.结果表明:1)林冠下的太阳辐射日进程与林冠上的不同,但辐射强度随着太阳高度角的变化而变化;林冠下太阳辐射日总量不仅受林冠上辐射日总量的影响,也受森林群落生长季节的影响;春、夏和秋季,林冠下平均辐射日总量分别占林冠上平均辐射日总量的53.1%、39.4%和55.8%.2)夏季,白天空气温度高于土壤温度,而夜间则相反;空气温度和土壤温度的日极端温度出现的时间不同步,空气温度对太阳辐射强度的敏感性比土壤温度的敏感性高.3)春季,土壤表层>4℃的积温高于空气和土壤底层>4℃的积温;夏季,>4℃的积温由高到低的次序为:林冠下空气>土壤5 cm层>土壤15 cm层,而秋季的比较结果与之相反;空气日平均温度与土壤日平均温度有显著的线性关系(P<0.001).4)林冠下的空气相对湿度(RH)比林冠上的高,林冠下的空气RH日变幅和季节性变幅比林冠上的小.图7表1参19     

模拟升温和放牧对高寒草甸土壤微生物群落的影响

通过开顶式温室(Open top chambers,OTCs)升温以及刈割+施加牛粪处理,应用磷脂脂肪酸(Phospholipid fatty acids,PLFAs)方法,研究了青藏高原东部高寒草甸土壤微生物群落结构对气候变暖和放牧的响应.结果表明,高寒草甸在生长季节,微生物群落以细菌为主.平均1.17℃的土壤升温使土壤微生物PLFAs总量增加34.58%,而春季割草结合牛粪施加使微生物PLFAs总量增加65.77%.模拟变暖和放牧均引起土壤微生物群落结构的显著变化.升温使细菌相对含量增加8.80%,而使真菌相对含量降低17.48%,细菌与真菌之比由7.3变为9.6.放牧使细菌相对含量增加8.40%,真菌相对含量降低14.04%,细菌与真菌之比由7.3变为9.2.OTCs升温+放牧处理比单独的升温或放牧处理对土壤微生物总量和细菌与真菌比值的影响更加明显.本研究表明,气候变暖和人类活动能够在短期内显著地改变青藏高原高寒草甸土壤微生物群落结构,进而可能影响这一地区的生态系统碳收支和养分循环.     

Disturbance-Mediated Mammal Persistence and Abundance-Area Relationships in Amazonian Forest Fragments

Abstract:  Few researchers have investigated the synergistic effects of tropical forest fragmentation and disturbance on species persistence and abundance. We examined effects of both forest-patch metrics and forest disturbance in determining richness and abundance of midsized to large-bodied mammal species in a highly fragmented Amazonian forest landscape. Twenty-one forest fragments, ranging from 2 to 14,480 ha, and two continuous forest sites were sampled based on sightings, tracks, line-transect censuses, armadillo burrow censuses, and camera trapping. Patch occupancy of 37 species recorded ranged from 4% to all forest sites surveyed. Forest fragment size was the strongest predictor of species persistence, explaining 90% of the variation in species richness. Information-theoretic analysis confirmed that fragment area was the most important explanatory variable for the overall species richness and abundance of mammal species, followed by surface fires, which affected the abundance of seven species. Large mammal species were typically absent from fragments <100 ha, whereas some ubiquitous species were favored by fragmentation, exhibiting hyperabundance in small patches. Our findings highlight the importance of large (>10,000 ha), relatively undisturbed forest patches to maximize persistence and maintain baseline abundances of Neotropical forest mammal species.     

温带阔叶红松林表层土壤活性碳、氮库的季节动态

以长白山温带阔叶红松林为观测对象,在植被生长季节对森林表层土壤进行连续性采样分析,以研究森林土壤活性碳、氮库的季节性变化特征及其影响因素。结果表明,不同季节土壤水溶性有机碳和硝态氮含量从高到低依次为春季、夏季和秋季,其变化范围分别为48～80和0.68～2.30μg.g-1。不同季节土壤水浸提溶液的特征吸光系数ASUVA,254和土壤铵态氮含量均表现为夏季高于春季和秋季,其变化范围分别为3.19～3.94 L.mg-1.m-1和6.1～12.0μg.g-1。在小时间尺度上,土壤活性碳、氮库对土壤含水量变化具有敏感性。水分条件和植物根系活动是影响表层土壤活性碳、氮库动态变化的主要因素,土壤微生物活动起调节作用。     

春季福建柏林内、林缘与市区的舒适度对比研究

用陆鼎煌提出的“综合舒适度指数（S）”表征人体舒适度这一生物气象指标,比较了春季福建柏林内外与市区小气候的差异,结果表明：福建柏林缘与市区相比降温幅度为0．6～3．5℃;福建柏林内与市区相比降温幅度为1．3～4．2℃。在增湿率方面,福建柏林缘与市区相比增湿幅度为5．28％～29．27％;福建柏林内与市区相比增湿幅度为7．7％。33．7％。在降低风速方面,林缘与市区相比平均风速降低了0．05m／s;林内与市区相比平均风速降低了0．74m／s。综合各下垫面人体感觉舒适的时间分别为福建柏林内（8h）：福建柏林缘（8h）〉市区（4h）。     

长白山阔叶红松林不同演替阶段地表甲虫组成和多样性(英文)

鞘翅目昆虫多样性的变化是森林演替过程的综合反映.于2007年6~8月采用陷阱诱捕法对长白山阔叶红松林带不同演替阶段地表甲虫物种组成和数量进行了调查,并分析了该地区不同演替阶段地表甲虫多样性的变化趋势及主要生境因子对地表甲虫群落的影响.结果显示,长白山阔叶红松林内共诱捕地表甲虫23种,共511头,隶属于10个科.其中个体数最多的为埋葬甲科,物种数最多的为步甲科,优势类群为步甲科和埋葬甲科.不同演替阶段中,次生白桦林地表甲虫物种数和个体数高于原始阔叶红松林和次生针阔混交林,3个生境内地表甲虫多样性无显著差别.地表甲虫高峰期为7月份.不同演替阶段的样地中物种统计数量都没有达到渐进线,次生白桦林样地中实际物种只占估计值的67%,其它2个生境实际物种数都在物种估计值的95%区间范围内,略低于平均值.3个生境的地表甲虫种-多度曲线无显著差异,符合对数分布.胸高断面积和土壤湿度对地表甲虫的分布有显著影响,它们可以解释99.2%的物种与环境之间的关系.