Evidence for changing the critical level for ammonia

The current critical level for ammonia (CLE_NH3) in Europe is set at 8 μg NH₃ m⁻³ as an annual average concentration. Recent evidence has shown specific effects of ammonia (NH₃) on plant community composition (a true ecological effect) at much smaller concentrations. The methods used in setting a CLE_NH3 are reviewed, and the available evidence collated, in proposing a new CLE_NH3 for different types of vegetation. For lichens and bryophytes, we propose a new CLE_NH3 of 1 μg NH₃ m⁻³ as a long-term (several year) average concentration; for higher plants, there is less evidence, but we propose a CLE_NH3 of 3 ± 1 μg NH₃ m⁻³ for herbaceous species. There is insufficient evidence to provide a separate CLE_NH3 for forest trees, but the value of 3 ± 1 μg NH₃ m⁻³ is likely to exceed the empirical critical load for N deposition for most forest ecosystems.     

Characterizing driving patterns for Zhuhai for traffic emissions estimation

Zhuhai, a relatively less developed city on the western coast of the Pearl River Delta (PRD) of China, is planning to undergo major development in coming years. A Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge project has been approved by the Central Government of China. The project will have great impact on the driving pattern and vehicular emissions to the city. This baseline study collected speed-time data of two instrumented private cars in morning and evening periods, as well as a daytime nonpeak period of >10 consecutive days in the spring and winter of 2003. The authors used the microwave speed sensor and global positioning system installed in the instrumented cars and used car-chasing technique to perform the data collection. They used the statistical package SPSS to assess the consistency, as well as to evaluate the variability of the data. Nine parameters, namely, average speed, average running speed, average acceleration rate, average deceleration rate, mean length of a driving period, time proportions of driving modes, average number of acceleration-deceleration changes, root mean square acceleration, and positive acceleration kinetic energy are calculated to represent the driving characteristics. A driving cycle for private cars was developed. If emission tests were conducted using the Zhuhai driving cycle, the level of vehicle emissions measured is likely to be in between that of the Federal Test Procedure (FTP) cycle and the Melbourne Peak cycle.     

Food Security: Crops for People Not for Cars

Humankind is currently faced with the huge challenge of securing a sustainable energy supply and biofuels constitute one of the major options. However, the commercially traded edible crops are barely sufficient to meet food demand of the present world population. Certain regions, for example EU-27, do not even have a sufficient indigenous crop production. Of this follows that motor biofuels based on edible crops should be avoided. To replace more than some percent of the fossil motor fuels, non-edible biomass—rest products and wastes—should instead be considered for conversion to biofuels. In this way, about 10% of the current fossil fuels can be replaced. Feeding a world population expected to grow by some 50% during the next 50 years will be a major challenge. For environmental reasons it seems that agricultural land cannot be expanded very much, maybe not at all. The solution to the increasing food demand seems therefore to be using the present crop production more efficiently and increasing output from present agricultural land, maintaining biodiversity and climate stability within reasonable limits. In the future, agriculture will need more energy and more water irrigation. Food production is, however, already very energy demanding, requiring several times more externally provided energy than the energy content of the food itself. A sufficient energy supply will be a key issue for the future farming!     

Characterizing Driving Patterns for Zhuhai for Traffic Emissions Estimation

Abstract

Zhuhai, a relatively less developed city on the western coast of the Pearl River Delta (PRD) of China, is planning to undergo major development in coming years. A Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge project has been approved by the Central Government of China. The project will have great impact on the driving pattern and vehicular emissions to the city. This baseline study collected speed-time data of two instrumented private cars in morning and evening periods, as well as a daytime nonpeak period of >10 consecutive days in the spring and winter of 2003. The authors used the microwave speed sensor and global positioning system installed in the instrumented cars and used car-chasing technique to perform the data collection. They used the statistical package SPSS to assess the consistency, as well as to evaluate the variability of the data. Nine parameters, namely, average speed, average running speed, average acceleration rate, average deceleration rate, mean length of a driving period, time proportions of driving modes, average number of acceleration-deceleration changes, root mean square acceleration, and positive acceleration kinetic energy are calculated to represent the driving characteristics. A driving cycle for private cars was developed. If emission tests were conducted using the Zhuhai driving cycle, the level of vehicle emissions measured is likely to be in between that of the Federal Test Procedure (FTP) cycle and the Melbourne Peak cycle.     

Laboratory column studies for evaluating a barrier system for providing oxygen and substrate for TCE biodegradation

The industrial solvent trichloroethylene (TCE) is among the most ubiquitous chlorinated compounds found in groundwater contamination. The objective of this study was to develop a biobarrier system containing oxygen-organic releasing material to enhance the aerobic cometabolism of TCE in situ. The oxygen-organic material, which contains calcium peroxide and peat, is able to release oxygen and primary substrates continuously upon contact with water. Batch experiments were conducted to design and identify the components of the oxygen-organic releasing material, and evaluate the oxygen and organic substrate (presented as COD equivalent) release from the designed oxygen-organic material. The observed oxygen and chemical oxygen demand (COD) release rates were approximately 0.0246 and 0.052 mg/d/g of material, respectively. A laboratory-scale column experiment was then conducted to evaluate the feasibility of this proposed system for the bioremediation of TCE-contaminated groundwater. This system was performed using a series of continuous-flow glass columns including a soil column, an oxygen-organic material column, followed by two consecutive soil columns. Aerobic acclimated sludges were inoculated in all three soil columns to provide microbial consortia for TCE biodegradation. Simulated TCE-contaminated groundwater with a flow rate of 0.25 l/day was pumped into this system. Effluent samples from each column were analyzed for TCE and other indicating parameters (e.g., pH, dissolved oxygen). Results show that the decreases in TCE concentrations were observed over a 4-month operating period. Up to 99% of TCE removal efficiency was obtained in this passive system. Results indicate that the continuously released oxygen and organic substrates from the oxygen-organic materials enhanced TCE biotransformation. Thus, the biobarrier treatment scheme has the potential to be developed into an environmentally and economically acceptable remediation technology.     

Epidemiological Bases for Possible Air Quality Criteria for Lead

In at least some urban areas, population exposure to elevated atmospheric lead levels is associated with increased blood lead. No reasonable alternative explanation exists other than that the increased levels of lead pollution are causing increased lead storage in the body. The study of lead body burdens in U. S. populations indicates an increasing concentration with age in liver, spleen, pancreas, kidney, and lung. No such increase is found in samples of residents from foreign countries.

The effect of increased storage of lead on porphyrin metabolism is in urgent need of investigation. Higher levels of lead exposure may interfere with hemoglobin synthesis.

Using WHO categories for air quality guides (criteria), a level I criterion for two micrograms of lead per cubic meter of air for a long-term average can be proposed. It would apply to pollution largely derived from motor vehicular sources.     

Transnational multistakeholder partnerships for sustainable development: Conditions for success

This perspective discusses nine conditions for enhancing the performance of multistakeholder partnerships for sustainable development. Such partnerships have become mainstream implementation mechanisms for attaining international sustainable development goals and are also frequently used in other adjacent policy domains such as climate change, health and biodiversity. While multistakeholder arrangements are widely perceived as a positive contribution to addressing global change, few studies have systematically evaluated the existing evidence for their positive performance. This poses an urgent and important challenge for researchers and practitioners to understand and improve the effectiveness of partnerships, in particular since their popularity increases despite their past track record. The recommendations presented are based on own research, a literature survey and discussions with a large number or international Civil Society Organizations at two occasions during 2014. This article proceeds as follows: first, we define multistakeholder partnerships, outline their rational and summarize available assessments on partnership success; second, we provide a set of concrete recommendations based on lessons-learned from over 10 years of scholarship; and third, we conclude with some reflections on the future of multistakeholder governance for sustainability.     

Epidemiological Bases for Possible Air Quality Criteria for Carbon Monoxide

Exposures to adequate environmental levels of CO will increase COHb concentrations in human subjects. The amount of this increase is reasonably predictable, and must be considered in relation to exposure to CO in inhaled cigarette smoke as well as to occupational and domestic exposures. The increase in body COHb will result in some degree of impairment of tissue oxygenation.

Methods for estimating COHb levels in large populations are relatively simple. The assumption that an exposure to 30 ppm CO for eight hours will produce on the average, an increase in COHb of 5%, has been substantiated by available data.

Exposure for five hours to between 10 and 12 ppm of CO has been shown to increase the COHb levels in nonsmokers by at least 0.5%. Such an increase adds appreciably to the body burden of COHb in those who do not already have such a body burden from cigarette smoking. Longer exposures could have produced a somewhat greater increase.

Apart from increases in COHb, three possible effects have been a source of major consideration in epidemiologic studies. The first is the production of some persistent toxic reaction. This possibility has been examined with respect to occupational exposure, and the evidence for the occurrence of such a condition is insufficient.

The possible contribution of ambient community CO exposure to the mortality of persons hospitalized with myocardial infarction has been investigated. The evidence suggests that daily average CO values in excess of about 10 ppm may be associated with an increase in mortality in hospitalized patients with myocardial infarction. Substantiation of this impression will require a study of the prognosis of myocardial infarction patients in relationship to COHb levels measured at admission to the hospital.

Finally, in two studies, persons driving motor vehicles which were involved in accidents had higher COHb levels than "control" populations. Controls were not ideal, however. Possible mechanisms by which CO might affect the ability to drive a motor vehicle is suggested in the available data on CO effects upon visual sensitivity, psychological test performance and accurate estimation of time intervals. As little as 2 percent COHb can produce these effects in laboratory studies, and the available epidemiologic information confirms that such an increase in COHb levels among drivers might influence the frequency of accidents.

Specific areas where research is indicated to clarify uncertainties relating to health effects of CO are: 1. The increment in COHb which can be produced by exposures to an average of 20 ppm CO for an eight hour period and the increment which can be produced by 15 ppm for such a period and by 10 ppm for up to twenty-four hours.

2. The relationship of ambient CO levels and of COHb levels to the survival of hospitalized patients with myocardial infarction.

3. The prognostic significance with respect to cardiovascular conditions of elevated levels of COHb.

4. The relationship, if any, between ambient CO and COHb levels and the occurrence of motor vehicle accidents when weather and driving conditions, cigarette smoking, alcohol and drug use, and other factors are adjusted and controlled.

     

Wastewater management for Istanbul: basis for treatment and disposal

A number of studies have so far been conducted to assess the magnitude of pollution generated by domestic and industrial sources in the Istanbul Metropolitan Area. They indicate that a management scheme for wastewater treatment and disposal should involve a total discharge of 15.4 m3 s(-1) with a potential pollution load of 330 tons BOD5 day(-1) for 1990. A scheme of this magnitude inevitably requires careful evaluation of receiving water characteristics, both from an oceanographic and a quality standpoint. In this paper significant water quality parameters related to the Black Sea-Bosphorus Strait-Marmara Sea System are reviewed and incorporated in the evaluation of treatment and disposal alternatives. In this context, the pollution exchange between the Mamara Sea and Bosphorus is quantified, pollutant contents of the Mamara Sea and discharges from the Istanbul Metropolitan Area are compared, and a number of scenarios are evaluated to define the optimum treatment and disposal strategy.     

Transfer functions for solid-solution partitioning of cadmium for Australian soils

To assess transport and ecotoxicological risks of metals, such as cadmium (Cd) in soils, models are needed for partitioning and speciation. We derived regression-based “partition-relations” based on adsorption and desorption experiments for main Australian soil types. First, batch adsorption experiments were carried out over a realistic range of dissolved Cd concentrations in agricultural soils in Australia. Results showed linear sorption relationships, implying the adequacy of using Kd values to describe partitioning. Desorption measurements were then carried out to assess in-situ Kd values and relate these to soil properties The best transfer functions for solid-solution partitioning were found for Kd values relating total dissolved Cd concentration to total soil Cd concentrations, accounting for the variation in pH, SOM contents and DOC concentrations. Model predictions compared well with measurements of an independent data set, but there was a tendency to underestimate dissolved Cd concentrations of highly polluted soils.     

A Technique for Sizing Electrostatic Precipitators for Highly Variable Fuels

Costs for as many as seven SO₂ control technologies were determined for each of the 66 existing or planned coal-fired utility units in the state of Illinois, and projected operations for each unit from 1983 through the year 2000 were obtained from production cost modeling runs or other data. The Sulfur Dioxide Emission Reduction Optimization Program (SEROP), a utility-specific marginal cost pollution control model developed at Wisconsin Power and Light Co., was used to calculate annual marginal control cost data for each individual utility, and statewide aggregate data. The potential market in emission reduction credits (ERC) was then analyzed for three acid deposition control strategies. It was determined that emissions trading sufficient to meet targeted emission levels for acid deposition control in an economically efficient manner will not occur under any of the strategies unless the desire for utilities to maintain control of their ERCs in future years is taken into account. This can only be accomplished in one of two ways: 1) leasing of ERCs, or 2) a “contingent” sale where the buyer agrees to sell back the ERC after a specified period of time. Other factors affecting the feasibility of ERC leasing are discussed.     

Prospects for future climate change and the reasons for early action

Combustion of coal, oil, and natural gas, and to a lesser extent deforestation, land-cover change, and emissions of halocarbons and other greenhouse gases, are rapidly increasing the atmospheric concentrations of climate-warming gases. The warming of approximately 0.1-0.2 degrees C per decade that has resulted is very likely the primary cause of the increasing loss of snow cover and Arctic sea ice, of more frequent occurrence of very heavy precipitation, of rising sea level, and of shifts in the natural ranges of plants and animals. The global average temperature is already approximately 0.8 degrees C above its preindustrial level, and present atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases will contribute to further warming of 0.5-1 degrees C as equilibrium is re-established. Warming has been and will be greater in mid and high latitudes compared with low latitudes, over land compared with oceans, and at night compared with day. As emissions continue to increase, both warming and the commitment to future warming are presently increasing at a rate of approximately 0.2 degrees C per decade, with projections that the rate of warming will further increase if emission controls are not put in place. Such warming and the associated changes are likely to result in severe impacts on key societal and environmental support systems. Present estimates are that limiting the increase in global average surface temperature to no more than 2-2.5 degrees C above its 1750 value of approximately 15 degrees C will be required to avoid the most catastrophic, but certainly not all, consequences of climate change. Accomplishing this will require reducing emissions sharply by 2050 and to near zero by 2100. This can only be achieved if: (1) developed nations move rapidly to demonstrate that a modem society can function without reliance on technologies that release carbon dioxide (CO2) and other non-CO2 greenhouse gases to the atmosphere; and (2) if developing nations act in the near-term to sharply limit their non-CO2 emissions while minimizing growth in CO2 emissions, and then in the long-term join with the developed nations to reduce all emissions as cost-effective technologies are developed.     

A Regujatory Framework for Setting Air Emission Limits for Noncriteria Pollutants

The information presented in this paper is concerned with the effects of ambient ozone on crop yield reduction and the resultant economic losses. Yield data for nine crops within the South Coast Air Basin (SCAB) of California were obtained for the 12-year period, 1964 through 1975. Ozone concentrations, temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity data were related to the yields by using regression models. Estimated yield reductions due to ozone for 1975, varied from zero to 57% depending on crop and location. Economic welfare losses calculated from the yield reductions were $57.3 and $45.7 million for producer’s and consumer’s surplus, respectively. The total loss from ozone to agriculture related economic sectors determined by input-output analysis was $276 million in the SCAB and $36.6 million in the remainder of the state.     

Fuels for Transportation

There is a need to reduce the amount of fossil energy used for transport, both because of the easily available fossil fuel is becoming sparser and because of climate concerns. In this article, the concept of “peak oil” is briefly presented. Second, a practical approach to reduction of fossil fuel use for transport elaborated by two British commissions is presented. A key feature is the introduction of electric cars. This raises the third issue covered in this article: namely, how battery technology is going to meet the increasing needs posed by the transport sector.     

Prospects for Future Climate Change and the Reasons for Early Action

Abstract

Combustion of coal, oil, and natural gas, and to a lesser extent deforestation, land-cover change, and emissions of halocarbons and other greenhouse gases, are rapidly increasing the atmospheric concentrations of climate-warming gases. The warming of approximately 0.1–0.2 °C per decade that has resulted is very likely the primary cause of the increasing loss of snow cover and Arctic sea ice, of more frequent occurrence of very heavy precipitation, of rising sea level, and of shifts in the natural ranges of plants and animals. The global average temperature is already approximately 0.8 °C above its preindustrial level, and present atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases will contribute to further warming of 0.5–1 °C as equilibrium is re-established. Warming has been and will be greater in mid and high latitudes compared with low latitudes, over land compared with oceans, and at night compared with day. As emissions continue to increase, both warming and the commitment to future warming are presently increasing at a rate of approximately 0.2 °C per decade, with projections that the rate of warming will further increase if emission controls are not put in place. Such warming and the associated changes are likely to result in severe impacts on key societal and environmental support systems. Present estimates are that limiting the increase in global average surface temperature to no more than 2–2.5 °C above its 1750 value of approximately 15 °C will be required to avoid the most catastrophic, but certainly not all, consequences of climate change. Accomplishing this will require reducing emissions sharply by 2050 and to near zero by 2100. This can only be achieved if: (1) developed nations move rapidly to demonstrate that a modern society can function without reliance on technologies that release carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other non-CO₂ greenhouse gases to the atmosphere; and (2) if developing nations act in the near-term to sharply limit their non-CO₂ emissions while minimizing growth in CO₂ emissions, and then in the long-term join with the developed nations to reduce all emissions as cost-effective technologies are developed.     

Application of a minicolumn detection method for screening spices for aflatoxin

The minicolumn of Holaday and Lansden was modified by increasing the height of neutral alumina and including a layer of anhydrous sodium sulphate. Using this procedure, aflatoxin was detected in 18 of 125 samples of black pepper, red pepper, ginger and turmeric. A few samples of each spice contained aflatoxin, although red pepper and turmeric showed the highest incidence. Aflatoxin B1 quantities ranged from 10 ug/kg to 120 ug/kg when estimated quantitatively by visual comparison with standards on thin-layer chromatography plates.     

Hardness corrections for copper are inappropriate for protecting sensitive freshwater biota

Toxicity testing using a freshwater alga (Chlorella sp.), a bacterium (Erwinnia sp.) and a cladoceran (Ceriodaphnia cf. dubia) exposed to copper in synthetic and natural freshwaters of varying hardness (44-375 mg CaCO3/l), with constant alkalinity, pH and dissolved organic carbon concentration, demonstrated negligible hardness effects in the pH range 6.1-7.8. Therefore, the use of a generic hardness-correction algorithm, developed as part of national water quality guidelines for protecting freshwater biota, is not recommended for assessing the toxicity of copper to these, and other, sensitive freshwater species. Use of the algorithm for these sensitive species will be underprotective because the calculated concentrations of copper in water that cause a toxic effect will be higher.     

Optimal restrictions on vehicle use for urban sustainability for Mexico City

This paper describes and develops the conditions that make the demand side policy of vehicle use restrictions part of a cost-effective set of environmental control policies. Mexico City's experience with vehicle use restrictions is described and its failure analysed. It is argued that Mexico City took a step in the right direction, but failed to make the restrictions flexible, thereby making the policy perverse. A programme of tradable vehicle use permits is presented and described that would provide the needed flexibility and promote urban sustainability.     

Metal biomonitoring with mosses: procedures for correcting for soil contamination

Highly variable total concentrations of 15 elements have been found in five species of epigeic mosses growing in remote areas of Italy and in northern Victoria Land (continental Antarctica). It is very likely that soil particles entrapped in the mosses cause these high element concentration differences, thereby leading to inexact interpretations of baseline concentrations and of element distribution in different parts of mosses. A simple procedure for estimating more plausible background values that consists of subtracting the substratum contribution from raw concentrations of elements in mosses is reported. The normalization of total concentrations to the regional soil composition is also emphasized, in order to point out other possible metal sources.