Assessment of cadmium bioaccessibility to predict its bioavailability in contaminated soils

In vitro assays have been developed to determine metal bioaccessibility in contaminated soils; however, their application to Cd is limited. To assess their suitability to determine Cd relative bioavailability (RBA), Cd-RBA in 12 contaminated soils containing 3.00–296 mg kg^− 1 Cd were determined using a mouse model and compared with Cd bioaccessibility data based on four assays including the UBM, SBRC, IVG, and PBET. After being administered feed amended with soil or CdCl₂ for 10-day, the Cd concentrations in the mouse liver and/or kidneys were used as biomarkers to estimate Cd-RBA. Cd-RBA was comparable at 34–90% and 40–78% based on mouse liver and kidneys with RSD of 7.10–8.99%, and 37–84% based on mouse liver plus kidneys with lower RSD of 5.8%. Cadmium bioaccessibility in soils varied with assays, with 61–99, 59–103, 54–107, and 35–97% in the gastric phase and 20–56, 38–77, 42–88, and 19–64% in the intestinal phase of the UBM, SBRC, IVG and PBET assays. Based on the combined biomarker of liver plus kidneys, better correlation was observed for PBET (r² = 0.61–0.70) than those for IVG, UBM and SBRC assays (0.12–0.52). The monthly Cd intake in children was 0.24–23.9 μg kg^− 1 using total Cd concentration in soils, which was reduced by 43% to 0.18–12.3 μg kg^− 1 using bioavailable Cd. Our data suggest it is important to consider Cd-RBA to assess risk associated with contaminated soils and the PBET may have potential to predict Cd-RBA in contaminated soils.     

Risks associated with the transfer of toxic organo-metallic mercury from soils into the terrestrial feed chain

Although the transfer of organo-metallic mercury (OrgHg) in aquatic food webs has long been studied, it has only been recently recognized that there is also accumulation in terrestrial systems. There is still however little information about the exposure of grazing animals to OrgHg from soils and feed as well as on risks of exposure to animal and humans.In this study we collected 78 soil samples and 40 plant samples (Lolium perenne and Brassica juncea) from agricultural fields near a contaminated industrial area and evaluated the soil-to-plant transfer of Hg as well as subsequent trophic transfer. Inorganic Hg (IHg) concentrations ranged from 0.080 to 210 mg kg^− 1 d.w. in soils, from 0.010 to 84 mg kg^− 1 d.w. in roots and from 0.020 to 6.9 mg kg^− 1 d.w. in shoots. OrgHg concentrations in soils varied between 0.20 and 130 μg kg^− 1 d.w. representing on average 0.13% of the total Hg (THg). In root and shoot samples OrgHg comprised on average 0.58% (roots) and 0.66% (shoots) of THg. Average bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) for OrgHg in relation to soil concentrations were 3.3 (for roots) and 1.5 (for shoots).The daily intake (DI) of THg in 33 sampling sites exceeded the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of THg of both cows (ADI = 1.4 mg d^− 1) and sheep (ADI = 0.28 mg d^− 1), in view of food safety associated with THg in animal kidneys. Estimated DI of OrgHg for grazing animals were up to 220 μg d^− 1 (for cows) and up to 33 μg d^− 1 (for sheep).This study suggested that solely monitoring the levels of THg in soils and feed may not allow to adequately taking into account accumulation of OrgHg in feed crops and properly address risks associated with OrgHg exposure for animals and humans. Hence, the inclusion of limits for OrgHg in feed quality and food safety legislation is advised.     

Are Chinese consumers at risk due to exposure to metals in crayfish? A bioaccessibility-adjusted probabilistic risk assessment

Freshwater crayfish, the world's third largest crustacean species, has been reported to accumulate high levels of metals, while the current knowledge of potential risk associated with crayfish consumption lags behind that of finfish. We provide the first estimate of human health risk associated with crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) consumption in China, the world's largest producer and consumer of crayfish. We performed Monte Carlo Simulation on a standard risk model parameterized with local data on metal concentrations, bioaccessibility (φ), crayfish consumption rate, and consumer body mass. Bioaccessibility of metals in crayfish was found to be variable (68–95%) and metal-specific, suggesting a potential influence of metal bioaccessibility on effective metal intake. However, sensitivity analysis suggested risk of metals via crayfish consumption was predominantly explained by consumption rate (explaining > 92% of total risk estimate variability), rather than metals concentration, bioaccessibility, or body mass. Mean metal concentrations (As, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn) in surveyed crayfish samples from 12 provinces in China conformed to national safety standards. However, risk calculation of φ-modified hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) suggested that crayfish metals may pose a health risk for very high rate consumers, with a HI of over 24 for the highest rate consumers. Additionally, the φ-modified increased lifetime risk (ILTR) for carcinogenic effects due to the presence of As was above the acceptable level (10^− 5) for both the median (ILTR = 2.5 × 10^− 5) and 90th percentile (ILTR = 1.8 × 10^− 4), highlighting the relatively high risk of As in crayfish. Our results suggest a need to consider crayfish when assessing human dietary exposure to metals and associated health risks, especially for high crayfish-consuming populations, such as in China, USA and Sweden.     

A geographical comparison of mercury in seabirds in the eastern Canadian Arctic

Mercury (Hg) is a potentially toxic metal ubiquitous in arctic biota. Livers of adult thick-billed murres (Uria lomvia) and northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) sampled from several locations in the eastern Canadian Arctic during 2007–2008 were analyzed for total Hg in order to assess geographical patterns. Thick-billed murres were collected from five colonies (Coats Island, Digges Island, Akpatok Island, Prince Leopold Island, Minarets) and northern fulmars from two colonies (Prince Leopold Island, Minarets). Murres at the two high Arctic colonies of Prince Leopold Island and the Minarets had significantly higher (two-fold) Hg concentrations (4.13 ± 019 μg g^− 1 dw and 4.41 ± 0.33 μg g^− 1 dw, respectively) than at the three low Arctic colonies (colony means of 1.62, 1.99 and 2.15 μg g^− 1 dw). The differences in Hg concentrations observed between high and low Arctic murre colonies may reflect a combination of different source regions for Hg, as well as a recent dietary shift among low Arctic murres. Fulmars from Prince Leopold Island had significantly higher Hg levels (6.99 ± 1.13 μg g^− 1 dw) than those from the Minarets (3.42 ± 0.53 μg g^− 1 dw) which may reflect different Hg deposition and methylation patterns on both summer and winter feeding areas. Although there is no evidence linking Hg to adverse population effects in either murres or fulmars at the colonies sampled, levels in some Canadian Arctic marine birds have increased over recent decades and, therefore, continued monitoring, particularly of the high Arctic colonies, is warranted.     

Rice consumption contributes to low level methylmercury exposure in southern China

Fish consumption is considered as the primary pathway of human methylmercury (MeHg) exposure. However, recent studies highlighted that, rice, rather than fish, is the main route of human MeHg exposure in Guizhou, inland China. China is considered as the largest anthropogenic source of mercury (Hg) emission in the world, which has led to serious environmental Hg pollution. But there are no comprehensive studies regarding this environmental health problem to evaluate human Hg exposure and associated health effects. This study aimed to estimate daily MeHg intake and health risk in 7 provinces in southern China, and to assess the relative contribution from rice and fish consumption. The average levels of total mercury (THg) and MeHg in rice samples were generally low at 10.1 ng·g^− 1 and 2.47 ng·g^− 1, respectively. But a total of 36 rice samples (12.7%) had THg concentration exceeding the national limit (20 ng·g^− 1). Generally, rural population had significantly higher Probable Daily Intakes (PDIs) of MeHg than urban population from rice consumption and its relative contribution to MeHg exposure increased significantly from coastal to inland area. The averages of PDIs of MeHg were 0.020 μg·kg^− 1·d^− 1 and 0.028 μg·kg^− 1·d^− 1 for urban and rural population in southern China, respectively. Despite the serious environmental Hg pollutions in China, the general population in southern China had low risk of MeHg exposure. But rice is an important route of human MeHg exposure in southern China, especially for the rural population in inland area. The findings indicate that rice consumption should be considered when evaluating MeHg exposure in rice eating population in southern China.     

Plasma levels of selenium-containing proteins in Inuit adults from Nunavik

Selenium (Se) is highly abundant in marine foods traditionally consumed by Inuit of Nunavik (Northern Quebec, Canada) and accordingly, their Se intake is among the highest in the world. However, little is known regarding the biological implications of this high Se status in this Arctic indigenous population. We used a method combining affinity chromatography and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry with quantification by post-column isotope dilution to determine total Se levels and concentrations of Se-containing proteins in archived plasma samples of Inuit adults who participated to the 2004 Nunavik Inuit Health Survey (N = 852). Amounts of mercury (Hg) associated with Se-containing proteins were also quantified. Results show that glutathione peroxidase 3 (GPx3), selenoprotein P (SelP) and selenoalbumin (SeAlb) represented respectively 25%, 52% and 23% of total plasma Se concentrations. In addition, small amounts of Hg co-eluted with each Se-containing protein and up to 50% of plasma Hg was associated to SelP. Total plasma Se concentrations (median = 139 μg L^− 1; interquartile range (IQR) = 22.7 μg L^− 1) were markedly lower and less variable than whole blood Se concentration (median = 261 μg L^− 1, IQR = 166 μg L^− 1). A non linear relation was observed between whole blood Se and plasma Se levels, with plasma Se concentrations leveling off at approximately 200 μg L^− 1, whereas 16% and 3% of individuals exhibited whole blood concentrations higher than 500 μg L^− 1 and 1000 μg L^− 1, respectively. In contrast, a linear relationship was previously reported in communities consuming Brazil nuts which are rich Se, mainly present as selenomethionine. This suggests that a different selenocompound, possibly selenoneine, is present in the Arctic marine food chain and accumulates in the blood cellular fraction of Inuit.     

Human exposure to environmental pollutants after a tire landfill fire in Spain: Health risks

In May 2016, a fire occurred in one of the largest landfills in Europe (Seseña, Toledo, Spain), where 70,000–90,000 tons of tires had been illegally accumulated for > 15 years. Because of the proximity of population nuclei and the duration of the episode (> 20 days), we conducted a preliminary human health risk assessment study just after the tire fire. Samples of air and soil were collected in 3 areas surrounding the landfill (El Quiñón, at only 500 m, and Seseña Nuevo and Seseña Viejo, both at 4 km), as well as in background sites. In addition, samples of crops (barley, wheat, cabbage and lettuce) were also obtained from local farmers. The concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and a number of trace elements (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, Tl, and V) were analyzed in all the samples. The concentrations of all the target pollutants, excepting PAHs, were relatively similar at the different sampling zones, irrespective of the distance to the landfill. In turn, a significant increase of PAHs was noted near the tire landfill, with air levels up to 6-times higher than those found at 4 km (134 vs. 19.5–22.7 ng/m³). Similarly, PAH concentrations in lettuce were relatively higher than those typically found in monitoring programs of food safety. Because of the increase of airborne PAHs, cancer risks due to exposure to environmental pollutants for the population living at El Quiñón, near the landfill, were between 3- and 5-times higher than those estimated for the inhabitants of Seseña. After this preliminary study, further investigations, focused only on PAHs, but more extensive in terms of number of samples, should be conducted to assure that PAHs have been progressively degraded through time.     

French children's exposure to metals via ingestion of indoor dust,outdoor playground dust and soil: Contamination data

In addition to dietary exposure, children are exposed to metals via ingestion of soils and indoor dust, contaminated by natural or anthropogenic outdoor and indoor sources. The objective of this nationwide study was to assess metal contamination of soils and dust which young French children are exposed to. A sample of 484 children (6 months to 6 years) was constituted in order to obtain representative results for young French children. In each home indoor settled dust was sampled by a wipe in up to five rooms. Outdoor playgrounds were sampled with a soil sample ring (n = 315) or with a wipe in case of hard surfaces (n = 53). As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Pb, Sb, Sr, and V were measured because of their potential health concern due to soil and dust ingestion. The samples were digested with hydrochloric acid, and afterwards aqua regia in order to determine both leachable and total metal concentrations and loadings by mass spectrometry with a quadrupole ICP-MS. In indoor settled dust most (total) loadings were below the Limit of Quantification (LOQ), except for Pb and Sr, whose median loadings were respectively 9 and 10 μg/m². The 95th percentile of loadings were 2 μg/m² for As, < 0.8 for Cd, 18 for Cr, 49 for Cu, < 64 for Mn, 63 for Pb, 2 for Sb, 56 for Sr, and < 8 for V. Median/95th percentile of loadings in settled dust on outdoor playgrounds were 2/16, < 0.8/1.3, 17/53, 49/330, 99/424, 32/393, 2/13, 86/661 and 10/37 μg/m² for As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Pb, Sb, Sr, and V respectively. In outdoor playground soil median/95th percentile of concentrations (μg/g) were 8/26, < 0.65/1, 25/52, < 26/53,391/956, 27/254, 0.7/4, 54/295, 23/57 for As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Pb, Sb, Sr, and V respectively. These results are comparable with those observed in other countries. Because of their representative nature, we can assess children's exposures to these metals via soil and dust and the associated risks in urban and rural environments. Ratios of leachable/total concentrations and loadings, calculated on > LOQ measurements, differed among metals. To a lesser extent, they were also affected by type of matrix, with (except for Cd) a greater leachability of dust (especially indoor) compared to soils.     

Exposure and body burden of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and metals in a historically contaminated community

There are many small villages where environmental contamination is substantial due to historical industrial activities. The aim of the present study was to investigate if long-term or current consumption of local foods, as reported in food frequency questionnaires, co-vary with measured concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg) in blood, urine and hair from a population living in a historically contaminated village.Blood, urine and hair were provided by men (n = 38) and women (n = 57), who had participated in a previous case–control study in the contaminated area, and were analyzed for PCB, OCPs, Pb, Cd and Hg. A detailed food frequency questionnaire, used in the previous epidemiological study, was repeated, and up-dated information of life-style, exposure factors and other covariates was collected. Associations between reported consumption of local foods and exposure biomarkers were explored in relation to age, gender, life-style factors and other covariates.A large part of the population in the area reported consumption of local food, and thus, was potentially exposed to the contaminants. Despite the limited number of participants and other weaknesses described, it was possible to link reported consumption of different foods to biomarker concentrations.Reported consumption of local vegetables, forest berries and mushrooms co-varied with urinary Cd, indicating an influence from the contaminated area on the Cd exposure. We found no associations between PCB plasma concentrations with reported consumption of local fish, but with consumption of herring (non-local sea fish) which is typically high in PCB. Pesticide (HCB, p,p′-DDE, trans-nonachlor) exposure was mainly associated with agricultural work and having a private well the first five years of life, but we found no associations between pesticide concentrations in plasma and consumption of local vegetables or fish. Exposure to Hg was associated with consumption of fish, both local and non-local, and Pb exposure was associated with the consumption of game.Overall, the contaminant concentrations measured in blood, urine and hair varied substantially among study participants, but on average, the concentrations were similar to concentrations measured in other groups of the general Swedish population in the same age range. Larger studies are needed to evaluate health risks (and causality) associated with historical environmental contamination.     

Substantial decline of polychlorinated biphenyls serum levels 10 years after public health interventions in a population living near a contaminated site in Northern Italy

IntroductionPolychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent pollutants classified among endocrine disruptors and human carcinogens. In an urban area in Northern Italy (Brescia), a chemical factory producing PCBs from 1938 to 1984 caused soil and food pollution. Since the discovering of the environmental pollution in the area in 2001, various public health interventions have been implemented to avoid human contamination.MethodsTwo independent surveys were carried out in 2003 and 2013 using the same study design and methods. A random sample of the adult general population living in four areas of the town with different soil contamination level was enrolled in both surveys. Investigation included serum levels of 24 PCB congeners and of other common clinical-chemical parameters and questions about residential and occupational history as well as current and past diet and consumption of locally produced food. 537 subjects were tested in the 2003 and 488 in the 2013 survey.ResultsTotal PCB serum levels showed a strong correlation with age (Spearman r = 0.71 in 2003 and r = 0.80 in 2013), but not with gender. Consumers of food produced in the most polluted area had higher total PCB serum levels (median 15.6 and 4.7 ng/ml in 2003 and 2013, respectively) than non-consumers (4.1 and 2.3 ng/ml) and consumers of food produced in non-polluted areas (6.5 and 1.9 ng/ml), with increasing trend of PCB serum levels with cumulative local food intake. PCB serum levels from 2003 to 2013 survey declined by around half in all age groups, especially among the youngest people. The total PCB reduction was found to be due to a combination of a birth cohort effect (− 41% every 10 years) and survey period effect (− 18% in 2013 versus 2003), with medium chlorinated CB congeners showing the most relevant reduction (− 30%) between the two surveys. High chlorinated CBs were more strongly associated with birth cohort (− 46% every 10 years): in the 2013 survey they represented 58% of total PCBs in 60–79 years old while they were 37% among the under 40s with a median value 20 times higher in the oldest than in the youngest (3.1 versus 0.16 ng/ml).ConclusionsPCBs serum levels declined from the 2003 to 2013 survey though they are still high in the elderly mainly because of past intake of locally produced contaminated food. Present findings suggest that PCBs food chain contamination and human absorption have been interrupted successfully in the area since discovery of the pollution in 2001.     

Route-specific daily uptake of organochlorine pesticides in food,dust, and air by Shanghai residents,China

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) are widely detected in the environment, although they have been banned in China since 1980s. To better understand the route-specific daily uptake of the pesticides by humans, a total of 322 food, dust, and air samples were collected in Shanghai, China, during 2008–2011. The median concentrations were 0.2–126.6 and 0.03–1.6 ng/g wet weight for DDTs (DDT and its metabolites) and HCHs, respectively, in different types of foods. The values in dust (indoors and outdoors) were 5.7–29.8 and 1.3–5.4 ng/g, and 13.9 × 10^− 3 and 2.6 × 10^− 3 ng/m³ in air (gas + particle) for DDTs and HCHs, respectively. The daily uptake of a pesticide by humans was calculated via the pesticide intake multiplied by its uptake efficiency. The uptake efficiencies of DDTs and HCHs in food through human intestines were estimated using bioaccessibility measured via an in vitro method simulating the human gastrointestinal digestion process. The total daily uptakes of DDTs and HCHs through three routes (i.e., ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact) were 79.4 and 4.9 ng/day, respectively, for children, and 131.1 and 8.0 ng/day, respectively, for adults. Ingestion via food and dust was the main route of human exposure to the pesticides, and the daily uptake of the pesticides via food consumption accounted for 95.0–99.2% of the total.     

Body burden of metals and persistent organic pollutants among Inuit in the Canadian Arctic

Inuit living in the Arctic are exposed to elevated levels of environmental contaminants primarily due to long-range atmospheric transport. Blood sampling and contaminant biomonitoring was conducted as part of the International Polar Year Inuit Health Survey in 2007-2008. The body burden of metals (e.g. Cd, Pb) and persistent organic pollutants (e.g. PCBs, DDT & DDE, toxaphene, chlordane, PBDEs) were measured for Inuit participants (n = 2172) from 36 communities in Nunavut, Nunatsiavut, and the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, in Canada. The geometric mean of blood concentrations for Cd, Pb, PCBs, DDE & DDT, toxaphene, and chlordane were higher than those in the Canadian general population. A total of 9% of study participants exceeded the intervention guideline of 100 μg L^− 1 for Pb, 11% of participants exceeded the trigger guideline of 5 μg L^− 1 for Cd, and 1% exceeded the intervention guideline of 100 μg L^− 1 for PCBs. Also, 3% of women of child-bearing age exceeded blood Pb of 100 μg L^− 1 while 28% of women of child-bearing age exceeded 5 μg L^− 1 of PCBs. This work showed that most Inuit Health Survey participants were below blood contaminant guidelines set by Health Canada but that metal and POP body burdens commonly exceed exposures observed in the general population of Canada.     

Determination of heavy metals in indoor dust from Istanbul,Turkey: Estimation of the health risk

Levels of eight potentially toxic heavy metals in indoor dust from homes and offices in Istanbul were investigated. The concentrations of heavy metals in indoor dust from homes + office ranged from 62 to 1800 μg g^− 1 for Cu, 3–200 μg g^− 1 for Pb, 0.4–20 μg g^− 1 for Cd, 210–2800 μg g^− 1 for Zn, 2.8–460 μg g^− 1 for Cr, 8–1300 μg g^− 1 for Mn, 2.4–25 μg g^− 1 for Co, 120–2600 μg g^− 1 for Ni. Results of the study were comparable to other studies conducted on indoor dust and street dust from a variety of cities globally. Considering only ingestion + inhalation, the carcinogenic risk level of Cr for adults and children (3.7 × 10^− 5 and 2.7 × 10^− 5) in Istanbul was in the range of EPA's safe limits (1 × 10^− 6 and 1 × 10^− 4), indicating that cancer risk of Cr due to exposure to indoor dust in Istanbul can be acceptable. According to calculated Hazard Quotient (HQ), for non-cancer effects, the ingestion of indoor dust appears to be the major route of exposure to the indoor dust that results in a higher risk for heavy metals, followed by dermal contact and inhalation pathways. However, compared to ingestion and dermal contact exposure, exposure through inhalation is almost negligible. Hazard Index (HI) values for all studied elements were lower than safe limit of 1 and this result suggested that none of the population groups would likely to experience potential health risk due to exposure to heavy metals from indoor dust in the study area.     

Mechanistic polychlorinated biphenyl exposure modeling of mothers in the Canadian Arctic: the challenge of reliably establishing dietary composition

BackgroundTraditional food (TF) consumption represents the main route of persistent organic pollutant (POP) exposure for indigenous Arctic Canadians. Ongoing dietary transitions away from TFs and toward imported foods (IFs) may contribute to decreasing POP exposures observed in these groups.MethodsTo explore this issue, we combined the global fate and transport model GloboPOP and the human food chain bioaccumulation model ACC-Human Arctic to simulate polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) exposure in two indigenous Arctic Canadian communities from the Inuvik region, Northwest Territories and Baffin region, Nunavut. Using dietary survey information from initial (1996–98) and follow-up (2005–07) biomonitoring campaigns in Inuvik and Baffin, we simulated PCB exposures (PCB-118, -138, -153, and -180) for each individual study participant and also whole study populations.ResultsTF intake rates, particularly of marine mammals (MMs), were the most important predictors of modeled PCB exposure, while TF consumption did not associate consistently with measured PCB exposures. Further, reported mean TF intake increased from baseline to follow-up in both Inuvik (from 8 to 183 g d^− 1) and Baffin (from 60 to 134 g d^− 1), opposing both the expected dietary transition direction and the observed decrease in human PCB exposures in these communities (ΣPCB Inuvik: from 43 to 29 ng g lipid^− 1, ΣPCB Baffin: from 213 to 82 ng g lipid^− 1). However dietary questionnaire data are frequently subject to numerous biases (e.g., recall, recency, confirmation), and thus casts doubt on the usefulness of these data.ConclusionsUltimately, our model's capability to reproduce historic PCB exposure data in these two groups was highly sensitive to TF intake, further underscoring the importance of accurate TF consumption reporting, and clarification of the role of dietary transitions in future POP biomonitoring of indigenous Arctic populations.     

Blood pressure changes in association with black carbon exposure in a panel of healthy adults are independent of retinal microcirculation

Exposure to ambient particulate matter and elevated blood pressure are risk factors for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Microvascular changes might be an important pathway in explaining the association between air pollution and blood pressure. The objective of the study was to evaluate the role of the retinal microcirculation in the association between black carbon (BC) exposure and blood pressure.We estimated subchronic BC exposure based on 1-week personal measurements (μ-Aethalometer, AethLabs) in 55 healthy nurses. Blood pressure and retinal microvasculature were measured on four different days (range: 2–4) during this week.Subchronic BC exposure averaged (± SD) 1334 ± 631 ng/m³ and ranged from 338 ng/m³ to 3889 ng/m³. An increased exposure of 631 ng/m³ BC was associated with a 2.77 mm Hg (95% CI: 0.39 to 5.15, p = 0.027) increase in systolic blood pressure, a 2.35 mm Hg (95% CI: 0.52 to 4.19, p = 0.016) increase in diastolic blood pressure and with 5.65 μm (95% CI: 1.33 to 9.96, p = 0.014) increase in central retinal venular equivalent. Mediation analysis failed to reveal an effect of retinal microvasculature in the association between blood pressure and subchronic BC exposure.In conclusion, we found a positive association between blood pressure and subchronic black carbon exposure in healthy adults. This finding adds evidence to the association between black carbon exposure and cardiovascular health effects, with elevated blood pressure as a plausible intermediate effector. Our results suggest that the changes in a person's blood pressure as a result of subchronic black carbon exposure operate independently of the retinal microcirculation.     

Novel brominated flame retardants in food composites and human milk from the Chinese Total Diet Study in 2011: Concentrations and a dietary exposure assessment

On the basis of the fifth Chinese total diet study (TDS) performed in 2011, the dietary exposure of the Chinese population to novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) was assessed. Six NBFRs were determined in 80 composite samples from four animal origin food groups and 29 pooled human milk samples. Based on gas chromatography-negative chemical ionization mass spectrometry (GC-NCI/MS) analysis, the levels of the total NBFRs ranged from < LOD to 70.2 ng/g lipid weight (lw) in food composites and from 2.48 to 23.9 ng/g lw in human milk samples. Decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), with mean levels of 9.03 ng/g lw in food composites and 8.06 ng/g lw in human milk, was the most abundant compound in the total NBFRs. No obvious spatial distribution patterns in China were observed in food samples or human milk. The average estimated daily intake (EDI) of total NBFRs via food consumption for a “standard Chinese man” was 4.77 ng/kg bodyweight (bw)/day, with a range of 0.681 to 18.9 ng/kg bw/day. Meat and meat products were the main dietary source of NBFRs, although levels of NBFRs in aquatic food were found to be the highest among the four food groups. The average EDI of total NBFRs for nursing infants was 38.4 ng/kg bw/day, with a range of 17.4 to 113 ng/kg bw/day, which was approximately eight-fold higher than the EDI for adults, suggesting the heavy body burden of NBFRs on nursing infants. The levels and EDI of DBDPE in the present study were similar to or higher than those of legacy BFRs (i.e., PBDEs and HBCD) in the TDS 2007, indicating that DBDPE, as a main alternative to PBDEs, might have become the primary BFR used in China.     

Lake eutrophication and brownification downgrade availability and transfer of essential fatty acids for human consumption

Fish are an important source of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) for birds, mammals and humans. In aquatic food webs, these highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) are essential for many physiological processes and mainly synthetized by distinct phytoplankton taxa. Consumers at different trophic levels obtain essential fatty acids from their diet because they cannot produce these sufficiently de novo. Here, we evaluated how the increase in phosphorus concentration (eutrophication) or terrestrial organic matter inputs (brownification) change EPA and DHA content in the phytoplankton. Then, we evaluated whether these changes can be seen in the EPA and DHA content of piscivorous European perch (Perca fluviatilis), which is a widely distributed species and commonly consumed by humans. Data from 713 lakes showed statistically significant differences in the abundance of EPA- and DHA-synthesizing phytoplankton as well as in the concentrations and content of these essential fatty acids among oligo-mesotrophic, eutrophic and dystrophic lakes. The EPA and DHA content of phytoplankton biomass (mg HUFA g^− 1) was significantly lower in the eutrophic lakes than in the oligo-mesotrophic or dystrophic lakes. We found a strong significant correlation between the DHA content in the muscle of piscivorous perch and phytoplankton DHA content (r = 0.85) as well with the contribution of DHA-synthesizing phytoplankton taxa (r = 0.83). Among all DHA-synthesizing phytoplankton this correlation was the strongest with the dinoflagellates (r = 0.74) and chrysophytes (r = 0.70). Accordingly, the EPA + DHA content of perch muscle decreased with increasing total phosphorus (r² = 0.80) and dissolved organic carbon concentration (r² = 0.83) in the lakes. Our results suggest that although eutrophication generally increase biomass production across different trophic levels, the high proportion of low-quality primary producers reduce EPA and DHA content in the food web up to predatory fish. Ultimately, it seems that lake eutrophication and brownification decrease the nutritional quality of fish for human consumers.     

Biomonitoring of the general population living near a modern solid waste incinerator: A pilot study in Modena,Italy

Background and goalsAs part of the authorization process for the solid waste incinerator (SWI) in Modena, Italy, a human biomonitoring cross-sectional pilot study was conducted to investigate the degree to which people living and working in the proximity of the plant were exposed to SWI emissions.MethodsBetween May and June 2010, 65 subjects living and working within 4 km of the incinerator (exposed) and 103 subjects living and working outside this area (unexposed) were enrolled in the study. Blood, serum and urinary metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, Hg, Mn, Ni), urinary benzene, toluene, xylene (BTEX), S-phenylmercapturic acid (SPMA), and urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were analysed. Information about lifestyle, anthropometric characteristics, residence, and health status was collected by a self-administered questionnaire. Exposure to particulate matter (PM) emitted from the SWI was estimated using fall-out maps from a quasi-Gaussian dispersion model. A multiple linear regression analysis investigated the relationship between biomarkers and the distance of a subject's place of residence from the SWI plant or the exposure to PM.ResultsUrinary BTEX and SPMA and blood, serum and urinary metals showed no differences between exposed and unexposed subjects. PAHs were higher in exposed than in unexposed subjects for phenanthrene, anthracene, and pyrene (median levels: 9.5 vs. 7.2 ng/L, 0.8 vs. < 0.5 ng/L and 1.6 vs. 1.3 ng/L, respectively, p < 0.05). Multiple linear regression analysis showed that blood Cd and Hg and urinary Mn, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene and pyrene were inversely correlated to the distance of a subject's residence from the SWI. Urinary Mn, fluorene and phenanthrene were directly correlated to PM exposure.ConclusionsThis study, although not representative of the general population, suggests that specific biomarkers may provide information about the degree of exposure the subjects working and living in the proximity of the SWI plant may have to emissions from that facility.     

The water footprint of sweeteners and bio-ethanol

An increasing demand for food together with a growing demand for energy crops result in an increasing demand for and competition over water. Sugar cane, sugar beet and maize are not only essential food crops, but also important feedstock for bio-ethanol. Crop growth requires water, a scarce resource. This study aims to assess the green, blue and grey water footprint (WF) of sweeteners and bio-ethanol from sugar cane, sugar beet and maize in the main producing countries. The WFs of sweeteners and bio-ethanol are mainly determined by the crop type that is used as a source and by agricultural practise and agro-climatic conditions; process water footprints are relatively small. The weighted global average WF of sugar cane is 209 m³/tonne; for sugar beet this is 133 m³/tonne and for maize 1222 m³/tonne. Large regional differences in WFs indicate that WFs of crops for sweeteners and bio-ethanol can be improved. It is more favourable to use maize as a feedstock for sweeteners or bio-ethanol than sugar beet or sugar cane. The WF of sugar cane contributes to water stress in the Indus and Ganges basins. In the Ukraine, the large grey WF of sugar beet contributes to water pollution. In some western European countries, blue WFs of sugar beet and maize need a large amount of available blue water for agriculture. The allocation of the limited global water resources to bio-energy on a large scale will be at the cost of water allocation to food and nature.     

Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in matched samples of human milk,dust and indoor air

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are lipophilic, persistent pollutants found worldwide in environmental and human samples. Exposure pathways for PBDEs remain unclear but may include food, air and dust. The aim of this study was to conduct an integrated assessment of PBDE exposure and human body burden using 10 matched samples of human milk, indoor air and dust collected in 2007–2008 in Brisbane, Australia. In addition, temporal analysis was investigated comparing the results of the current study with PBDE concentrations in human milk collected in 2002–2003 from the same region.PBDEs were detected in all matrices and the median concentrations of BDEs -47 and -209 in human milk, air and dust were: 4.2 and 0.3 ng/g lipid; 25 and 7.8 pg/m³; and 56 and 291 ng/g dust, respectively. Significant correlations were observed between the concentrations of BDE-99 in air and human milk (r = 0.661, p = 0.038) and BDE-153 in dust and BDE-183 in human milk (r = 0.697, p = 0.025). These correlations do not suggest causal relationships — there is no hypothesis that can be offered to explain why BDE-153 in dust and BDE-183 in milk are correlated. The fact that so few correlations were found in the data could be a function of the small sample size, or because additional factors, such as sources of exposure not considered or measured in the study, might be important in explaining exposure to PBDEs. There was a slight decrease in PBDE concentrations from 2002–2003 to 2007–2008 but this may be due to sampling and analytical differences. Overall, average PBDE concentrations from these individual samples were similar to results from pooled human milk collected in Brisbane in 2002–2003 indicating that pooling may be an efficient, cost-effective strategy of assessing PBDE concentrations on a population basis.The results of this study were used to estimate an infant's daily PBDE intake via inhalation, dust ingestion and human milk consumption. Differences in PBDE intake of individual congeners from the different matrices were observed. Specifically, as the level of bromination increased, the contribution of PBDE intake decreased via human milk and increased via dust. As the impacts of the ban of the lower brominated (penta- and octa-BDE) products become evident, an increased use of the higher brominated deca-BDE product may result in dust making a greater contribution to infant exposure than it does currently.To better understand human body burden, further research is required into the sources and exposure pathways of PBDEs and metabolic differences influencing an individual's response to exposure. In addition, temporal trend analysis is necessary with continued monitoring of PBDEs in the human population as well as in the suggested exposure matrices of food, dust and air.