Quantitative modelling to estimate the transfer of pharmaceuticals through the food production system

Use of pharmaceuticals in animal production may cause an indirect route of contamination of food products of animal origin. This study aimed to assess, through mathematical modelling, the transfer of pharmaceuticals from contaminated soil, through plant uptake, into the dairy food production chain. The scenarios, model parameters, and values refer to contaminants in emission slurry production, storage time, immission into soil, plant uptake, bioaccumulation in the animal's body, and transfer to meat and milk. Modelling results confirm the possibility of contamination of dairy cow's meat and milk due the ingestion of contaminated feed by the cattle. The estimated concentration of pharmaceutical residues obtained for meat ranged from 0 to 6 ng kg^?1 for oxytetracycline, from 0.011 to 0.181 μg kg^?1 for sulfamethoxazole, and from 4.70 to 11.86 μg kg^?1 for ketoconazole. The estimated concentrations for milk were: zero for oxytetracycline, lower than 40 ng L^?1 for sulfamethoxazole, and from 0.98 to 2.48 μg L^?1 for ketoconazole. Results obtained for the three selected pharmaceuticals indicate a minor risk for human health. This study showed that supply chain modelling could be an effective tool in assessing the indirect contamination of feedstuff and animal products by residues of pharmaceuticals. The model can easily be adjusted to other contaminants and supply chain and, in this way, present a valuable tool to underpin decision making.     

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and perfluorinated alkylated substances (PFASs) in traditional seafood items from western Greenland

In this study, contamination levels were determined for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and perfluorinated alkylated substances (PFASs) in traditional Greenland seafood items, such as raw and smoked fish fillet (salmon and halibut), whale and seal meat and narwhal mattak (skin and blubber). The daily intake of PCBs, PBDEs and PFASs through traditional seafood items in Greenland was assessed. Based on the presented levels of contaminants, in combination with earlier food intake studies, suggests that the daily exposure was below the tolerable daily intake threshold for all compounds. BDE-47 was the only PBDE-congener detected in all food items, except in smoked halibut. The levels of BDE-47 varied from < LOD in smoked halibut up to 18 ng/g lw in narwhal mattak and 21 ng/g lw in whale beef. ∑PCB were lowest in smoked halibut (37 ng/g lw) and highest in narwhal mattak with 1,146 ng/g lw. Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) was the most common of the PFASs. However, ΣPFASs were below detection limits in most fish fillet samples, and varied from 2.9 ng/g ww in whale beef to 13.5 ng/g ww in seal beef. The present study shows that the exclusion from the diet of local food items such as intestines and blubber have a strong positive effect for the reduction of POPs levels in food, without a reducing the health benefits of traditional food intake considerably.     

Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in human milk samples in Vojvodina,Serbia: Estimation of average daily intake by babies

The objectives of the study were to determine the aflatoxin M1 content in human milk samples in Vojvodina, Serbia, and to assess the risk of infants' exposure to aflatoxins food contamination. The growth of Aspergillus flavus and production of aflatoxin B1 in corn samples resulted in higher concentrations of AFM1 in milk and dairy products in 2013, indicating higher concentrations of AFM1 in human milk samples in 2013 and 2014 in Serbia. A total number of 60 samples of human milk (colostrum and breast milk collected 4–8 months after delivery) were analyzed for the presence of AFM1 using the Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay method. The estimated daily intake of AFM1 through breastfeeding was calculated for the colostrum samples using an average intake of 60 mL/kg body weight (b.w.)/day on the third day of lactation. All breast milk collected 4–8 months after delivery and 36.4% of colostrum samples were contaminated with AFM1. The greatest percentage of contaminated colostrum (85%) and all samples of breast milk collected 4–8 months after delivery had AFM1 concentration above maximum allowable concentration according to the Regulation on health safety of dietetic products. The mean daily intake of AFM1 in colostrum was 2.65 ng/kg bw/day. Results of our study indicate the high risk of infants' exposure, who are at the early stage of development and vulnerable to toxic contaminants.     

Tracking mercury in the southwestern Atlantic Ocean: the use of tuna and tuna-like species as indicators of bioavailability

Mercury is a trace element that is potentially dangerous due its high toxicity and tendency to bioaccumulate in organisms. Currently, high mercury concentrations are seen in the environment especially due climate changes. Studies regarding mercury bioavailability in the southwestern Atlantic Ocean using tuna and tuna-like species are rare. The aim of the present study was to use tuna and tuna-like species (Thunnus atlanticus, Thunnus albacares, Katsuwonus pelamis, Euthynnus alletteratus, Coryphaena hippurus and Sarda sarda) as indicators of the availability of total mercury (THg) in oceanic food webs of the southwestern Atlantic Ocean. THg concentrations varied significantly among species for both muscle and liver (Kruskal–Wallis test; H5,130 = 52.7; p < 0.05; H5,130 = 50.1; p < 0.05, respectively). The lowest concentrations were found in C. hippurus (0.008 mg kg−1 wet weight in the muscle and 0.003 mg kg−1 wet weight in the liver), and the highest concentrations were reported in the muscle of T. atlanticus (1.3 mg kg−1 wet weight) and in the liver of S. sarda (2.5 mg kg−1 wet weight). The continued monitoring of tuna and tuna-like species is necessary to assist in their conservation since tuna can be sentinels of mercury pollution.     

Exposure of ruminants to persistent organic pollutants and potential of decontamination

Human activities are emitting persistent organic pollutants (POPs) to the environment. These compounds have raised concerns about the risk of transfer through the food chain via animal products. They are characterized by a strong persistence in environmental matrices and a lipophilicity which may lead to their accumulation in fat tissues. In EU Regulations (no. 1881/2006, 1259/2011), maximum acceptable levels for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), and dioxin-like or nondioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in food of animal origin have been set. Transfer rates from contaminated fodder to milk have been established: for PCBs, the rate of transfer varies from 5 to 90 % and for PCDD/Fs from 1 to 40 %. The differential transfer of the compounds towards milk is related to the hydrophobicity of the pollutants and to their metabolic susceptibility. According to numerous authors, soil is the major reservoir for POPs, and its involuntary ingestion by farm animals reared outdoors may be the main cause of animal product contamination (meat, milk, or eggs). Recent studies seem to indicate that soil is a real risk matrix in terms of transfer of pollutants to the food chain. A POP crisis management is extremely difficult, since it impacts many farmers located in the contaminated area. The question arising is to know if livestock contaminated by POPs may be decontaminated and further used for their initial purpose. Recent data demonstrate that the decontamination process appear feasible and depends on initial level of contamination or the physiological status of the animals.     

Life cycle of PCBs and contamination of the environment and of food products from animal origin

This report gives a summary of the historic use, former management and current release of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in Germany and assesses the impact of the life cycle of PCBs on the contamination of the environment and of food products of animal origin. In Germany 60,000 t of PCBs were used in transformers, capacitors or as hydraulic oils. The use of PCB oils in these “closed applications”, has been banned in Germany in 2000. Thirty to 50% of these PCBs were not appropriately managed. In West Germany, 24,000 t of PCBs were used in open applications, mainly as additive (plasticiser, flame retardant) in sealants and paints in buildings and other construction. The continued use in open applications has not been banned, and in 2013, an estimated more than 12,000 t of PCBs were still present in buildings and other constructions. These open PCB applications continuously emit PCBs into the environment with an estimated release of 7–12 t per year. This amount is in agreement with deposition measurements (estimated to 18 t) and emission estimates for Switzerland. The atmospheric PCB releases still have an relevant impact on vegetation and livestock feed. In addition, PCBs in open applications on farms are still a sources of contamination for farmed animals. Furthermore, the historic production, use, recycling and disposal of PCBs have contaminated soils along the lifecycle. This legacy of contaminated soils and contaminated feed, individually or collectively, can lead to exceedance of maximum levels in food products from animals. In beef and chicken, soil levels of 5 ng PCB-TEQ/kg and for chicken with high soil exposure even 2 ng PCB-TEQ/kg can lead to exceedance of EU limits in meat and eggs. Areas at and around industries having produced or used or managed PCBs, or facilities and areas where PCBs were disposed need to be assessed in respect to potential contamination of food-producing animals. For a large share of impacted land, management measures applicable on farm level might be sufficient to continue with food production. Open PCB applications need to be inventoried and better managed. Other persistent and toxic chemicals used as alternatives to PCBs, e.g. short chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), should be assessed in the life cycle for exposure of food-producing animals and humans.     

Seasonal differences in mercury accumulation in Trichiurus lepturus (Cutlassfish) in relation to length and weight in a Northeast Brazilian estuary

Background, aim, and scope  At tropical latitudes, and especially on the semi-arid coasts of the Brazilian Northeast, the rainfall regime governs the water quality of estuaries due to the pronounced difference between the rainy and dry seasons. These changes may be responsible for seasonal changes in bioavailability of mercury (Hg) and other pollutants to the estuarine and coastal biota. Mercury bioaccumulates along estuarine–marine food chains usually result in higher concentrations in tissues of top predators and posing a risk to both marine mammals and humans alike. The Goiana River Estuary (7.5° S) is a typical estuary of the semi-arid tropical regions and supports traditional communities with fisheries (mollusks, fish, and crustacean). It is also responsible for an important part of the biological production of the adjacent coastal waters. Materials and methods   Trichiurus lepturus (Actinopterygii: Perciformes) is a pscivorous marine straggler. Fish from this species (n = 104) were captured in a trapping barrier used by the local traditional population and using an otter trawl net along the main channel of the low estuary during two dry seasons (D1 = November, December 2005, January 2006; D2 = November, December 2006, January 2007) and the end of a rainy season (R = August, September, October 2006). Fish muscle samples were preserved cold and then freeze-dried prior to analysis of its total mercury (Hg-T) contents. Total mercury was determined by cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry (CV-AAS) with sodium borohydride as a reducing agent. Results  The studied individuals (n = 104) were sub-adult (30–70 cm, 71 ind.) and adult fish (>70 cm, 33 ind.). Weight (W) (204.1 ± 97.9 g, total biomass = 21,229.7 g) and total length (TL) (63.1 ± 10.1 cm, range 29.5–89.0 cm) presented a significant (p < 0.05) correlation. Two-way ANOVA (n = 81) showed that TL and W had significant differences (p < 0.05) among seasons, being higher in D1 than in D2 and R, respectively. Moreover, season vs. month interaction were detected for the variables length and weight. For the variable weight was detected significant difference for the factor month (p < 0.05). It suggests that the fish enter the estuary at the end of the rainy season and increase in length and weight during the time they spend in the estuary. Fish from this estuary are shown to be fit for human consumption (125.3 ± 61.9 μgHg-T kg^–1 w.wt.; n = 104). Fish mercury contents increased with size and weight. Correlations between TL and Hg-T (r = 0.37286) and between W and Hg-T (r = 0.38212) were significant (p < 0.05). Dryer months showed higher mercury concentrations in fish (D1 773.4 ± 207.5 μgHg-T kg^–1 d.wt., n = 27; D2 370.1 ± 78.8 μgHg-T kg^–1 d.wt., n = 27; R 331.2 ± 138.5 μgHg-T kg^–1 d.wt., n = 27). The variable mercury concentration showed differences in relation to the factor season (p < 0.05), where fish captured during the first dry season showed the highest concentration of mercury. The correlation between Hg-T and rainfall (Rf) showed a negative correlation (r = –0.56; p < 0.05). Discussion  The main likely source of mercury to this estuary is diffuse continental run off, including urban and industrial effluents. Since concentration of mercury in fish tissue is negatively correlated to rainfall, but positively correlated with fish length and weight, it suggests that fish growth in this estuary results in mercury uptake and concentration on the fish tissue. In the dry season of 2005–2006, when rainfall remained below the historic average, fish bioaccumulated significantly more mercury than in the dry season 2006–2007, when rainfall was within the predictable historic average. It is suggested that less rainfall, and consequently less particulate matter and less primary production in the estuary, make mercury more available to the higher levels of the estuarine food chain. In the case of higher rainfall, when river flow increases and water quality in the estuary is reduced, mercury probably is quickly exported associated to the particulate matter to the adjacent coastal waters where it then disperses. This species is a potential routine bioindicator for mercury contamination of the biota, but so far was used only with a limited number of individuals and contexts. Conclusions  Fish from the Goiana River estuary can still be safely consumed by the local population. However, any further contamination of this resource might lead to total mercury levels above the recommended limits for pregnant women and small children. The proposed heavy dependency of total mercury levels in fish on water quality indicates that land use and water quality standards must be more closely watched in order to guarantee that best possible practices are in place to prevent bioaccumulation of mercury and its transfer along the food chain. Human interventions and climatic events which affect river water flow are also playing a role in the mercury cycle at tropical semi-arid estuaries. Recommendations and perspectives   T. lepturus is largely consumed by coastal populations of tropical and sub-tropical countries all over the world. It is also consumed by a number of marine mammals over which we have a strong conservation interest. This species is also a link among different ecosystems along the estuarine ecocline. Therefore, knowledge of its degree of contamination might contribute to public health issues as well as marine conservation actions. Studies on mercury and other contaminants using this species as bioindicator (cosmopolitan, readily available) could help elucidating mechanisms through which pollutants are being transferred not only through the food chain, but also from estuarine–coastal–open waters. In addition, using the same species in marine pollution studies, especially as part of a mosaic of species, allows for wide range comparisons of marine food chain contamination.     

Assessment of honey contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

The aim of this study was to assess honey contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Six species of honey were examined, as well as rape blossom and soil from villages P?czerzyno and Przybys?aw in West Pomerania, Poland. The instrumental analysis was performed using a HP 6890 gas chromatograph coupled to a HP 5973 mass spectrometer with selected ion monitoring (SIM). Quantification was done by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) using perdeuterated internal standards. Both soil samples showed high levels of all 23 PAHs, whereas honey contained mostly non-carcinogenic PAHs of low molecular weight. The most contaminated honey from P?czerzyno contained 0.24 μg kg-1 benzo[a]pyrene. Moreover, despite low contamination of honey, a positive correlation was found between PAH content in honey, blossom and soil.     

Protected Area as an Indicator of Ecological Sustainability? A Century of Development in Europe’s Boreal Forest

Protected area (PA) is an indicator linked to policies on ecological sustainability. We analyzed area, size, and categories of PAs in the European boreal forest biome in Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia from 1900 to 2010. The PA increased from 1.5 × 10³ ha in 1909 to 2.3 × 10⁷ ha in 2010. While the total PA in the boreal biome was 10.8 %, the figures ranged from 17.2 % in the northern, 7.9 % of the middle, and 8.7 % of the southern boreal sub-regions. The median size of PAs varied from 10 to 124 ha among countries. The categories of less strictly PAs increased over time. The proportion of area occupied by PAs is an important response indicator for conservation efforts. However, the use of PA as an indicator of ecological sustainability needs to consider ecosystem representation, functional connectivity and management categories.     

Hexabromocyclododecanes in soils and plants from a plastic waste treatment area in North China: occurrence,diastereomer- and enantiomer-specific profiles,and metabolization

Plastic waste is a source of organic contaminants such as hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs). HBCDs have been found to cause developmental and reproductive toxicity; it is important to investigate the occurrence and metabolization of HBCDs in the soil environments with plastic waste contamination. This work analyzed HBCDs and their metabolites in soil and plant samples collected from Xinle and Dingzhou—the major plastic waste recycling centers in North China. Results showed that total HBCD concentrations in soils followed the order: plastic waste treatment site (11.0–624 ng/g) > roadside (2.96–85.4 ng/g) ≥ farmland (8.69–55.5 ng/g). HBCDs were detected in all the plant samples with total concentrations ranging from 3.47 to 23.4 ng/g. γ-HBCD was the dominant congener in soils, while α-HBCD was preferentially accumulated in plants. Compositions of HBCD isomers in soils and plants were significantly different (P < 0.05) among sampling sites and among plant species. HBCDs in farmland soil and all plant samples exhibited high enantio-selectivity based on the enantiomeric fractions (EFs). Furthermore, metabolites of pentabromocyclododecenes (PBCDEs) were frequently identified in soils, and mono-OH-HBCDs were the most common ones in plants. This study for the first time provides evidences of HBCD contamination in the soil-plant system caused by plastic waste, their stereo-selectivity, and metabolization behavior, improving our understanding of the environmental behavior and fate of HBCDs.     

Optimal regulation of N/P in horizontal sub-surface flow constructed wetland through quantitative phosphorus removal by steel slag fed

High concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus and imbalance of N/P can lead to the formation of water and the malignant proliferation of toxic microalgae. This study put forward the advanced nutrient removal with the regulation of effluent N/P as the core in order to restrain the eutrophication and growth of poisonous algae. According to the preliminary study and review, the optimal N/P for non-toxic green algae was 50:1. The horizontal sub-surface flow constructed wetland was filled with steel slag and ceramsite to achieve the regulation of effluent N/P. The results showed that steel slag had the stable P removal capacity when treating synthetic solution with low P concentration and the average removal rate for 1.5, 1.0, and 0.5 mg/L synthetic P solution was 2.98 ± 0.20 mg kg−1/h, 2.26 ± 0.15 mg kg−1/h, and 1.11 ± 0.10 mg kg−1/h, respectively. Combined with P removal rate and P removal task, the filling amount of steel slag along the SSFCW (sub-surface flow constructed wetland) was 3.22 kg, 4.24 kg, and 4.31 kg. In order to ensure the stability of dephosphorization of steel slag, the regeneration of P removal capacity was investigated by switching operation of two parallel SSFCW in 20 days for cycle. The N removal was limited for the deficiency of carbon source (COD (chemical oxygen demand)/TN = 3–4), and was stable at 18.5–31.9% which was less affected by temperature. Therefore, by controlling the process of quantitative P removal of steel slag, the effluent N/P in SSFCW can be stable at 40–60:1 in the whole year, so as to inhibit the malignant proliferation of toxic algae.     

A systematic review and meta-analysis of lead and cadmium concentrations in cow milk in Iran and human health risk assessment

The aim of the current research was to systematically review and summarize the studies that evaluated the concentration of lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) in cow milk in different regions of Iran and to perform a meta-analysis of the findings. Moreover, the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks of Pb and Cd through milk consumption in adult and child consumers were assessed. As a result of a systematic search in the international and national databases between January 2008 and October 2018, 17 reports involving 1874 samples were incorporated in our study for meta-analysis. The pooled concentrations of Pb and Cd were estimated to be 13.95 μg mL−1 (95% CI 9.72–18.11 μg mL−1) and 3.55 μg mL−1 (95% CI − 2.38–9.48 μg mL−1), respectively, which were lower than the WHO/FAO and national standard limits. The estimated weekly intake (EWI) of Pb and Cd through consuming milk was 16.65 and 7 μg day−1 for adults of 70 kg and 45 and 34 μg day−1 for children of 26 kg, respectively, which was well below the risk values set by Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). The maximum target hazard quotient values (THQs) of Pb and Cd were 5.55E−5 and 5.55E−5 for adults and 5.55E−5 and 5.55E−5 for children, respectively, which were lower than 1 value, suggesting that Iranian consumers are not exposed to non-carcinogenic risk through consuming milk. Moreover, the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) of Pb estimated to be 2.96E−04 in adults and 1.0E−03 in children, indicating that consumers in Iran are at threshold carcinogenic risk of Pb through consuming milk (ILCR > 10−4). Therefore, planning and policy making for the sustainable reduction of these toxic metals in milk, particularly in industrial regions of Iran, are crucial.     

Development of Lymantria dispar affected by manganese in food

We studied the response of gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae)) to the content of manganese in food in the laboratory breeding of caterpillars. The food of the caterpillars {Betula pendula Roth (Fagales: Betulaceae) leaves} was contaminated by dipping in the solution of MnCl₂·4H₂O with manganese concentrations of 0, 0.5, 5 and 10 mg ml^?1, by which differentiated manganese contents (307; 632; 4,087 and 8,124 mg kg^?1) were reached. Parameters recorded during the rearing were as follows: effect of manganese on food consumption, mortality and length of the development of caterpillars, pupation and hatching of imagoes. At the same time, manganese concentrations were determined in the offered and unconsumed food, excrements, and exuviae of the caterpillars, pupal cases and imagoes by using the AAS method. As compared with the control, high manganese contents in the food of gypsy moth caterpillars affected the process of development particularly by increased mortality of the first instar caterpillars (8 % mortality for caterpillars with no Mn contamination (T0) and 62 % mortality for subjects with the highest contamination by manganese (T3)), by prolonged development of the first–third instar (18.7 days (T0) and 27.8 days (T3)) and by increased food consumption of the first–third instar {0.185 g of leaf dry matter (T0) and 0.483 g of leaf dry matter (T3)}. The main defence strategy of the caterpillars to prevent contamination by the increased manganese content in food is the translocation of manganese into frass and exuviae castoff in the process of ecdysis. In the process of development, the content of manganese was reduced by excretion in imagoes to 0.5 % of the intake level even at its maximum inputs in food.     

Characterisation of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in a terrestrial ecosystem near a fluorochemical plant in Flanders,Belgium

Bioaccumulation of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in a restricted terrestrial food chain was investigated with the omnivorous wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) on top of the studied food chain. The levels detected are very high compared with literature as a result of the presence of fluorochemical plant in the immediate vicinity of the study area. Soil, surface water, fruits of European elder and common blackberry, invertebrates, bank vole and wood mouse were collected at two sites, e.g. Blokkersdijk, adjacent to the fluorochemical plant, and Galgenweel, a reference site 2 km further away. In wood mouse, the highest PFOS concentrations were found in the liver followed by the pancreas, lungs and kidneys, with the spleen having the lowest levels. In the liver, the concentrations ranged from 787 to 22,355 ng/g ww at Blokkersdijk and these were significantly correlated with those detected in the kidneys (13.7–4,226 ng/g ww). If current results are compared to the findings of a previous study conducted in 2002 at the same sites, a significant decrease of PFOS in livers of wood mouse is observed. To the best of our knowledge, so far no studies reported levels of PFOS in terrestrial invertebrates under field conditions. At Blokkersdijk, PFOS was detected in all invertebrate species ranging from 28 to 9,000 ng/g. Soil and water were also contaminated with levels of respectively 68 ng/g and 22 ng/L. Biota-to-soil accumulation factors ranged from 0.11 to 68 for earthworms. Biomagnification factors (BMFs) of liver wood mouse/berries were as high as 302. BMFs for invertebrates were remarkably lower (up to 2).     

Increase of the PCDD/F-contamination of milk, butter and meat samples by use of contaminated citrus pulp

In Germany from 1993 to 1997, the polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and -furans (PCDD/F) contamination of food decreased slowly but constantly. However, for milk and butter, this trend was gradually reversed beginning in September 1997: From summer 1997 to February 1998 the average PCDD/F contamination of dairy products increased from a low level of about 0.6 pg I-TEQ/g fat in summer 1997. The dioxin content, of a limited number of randomly collected samples, rose on average to 1.41 pg I-TEQ/g fat (median 1.06 pg I-TEQ/g fat) in different regions of Germany in February 1998. A butter sample from the Netherlands with 1.96 pg I-TEQ/g fat hinted at the same source. The congener pattern in all contaminated milk and butter samples had elevated amounts of 2,3,7,8-TCDD and 1,2,3,7,8-PeCDD. Also, meat samples (beef, cow's meat and veal) with the same dioxin pattern were found to contain between 1.72 and 4.26 pg I-TEQ/g fat (background contamination of 0.53 pg I-TEQ/g fat). Large number of samples were analyzed to find a key for the cause. With a farmer producing milk with about 4.9 pg I-TEQ/g fat, a new source of PCDD/F for food contamination was discovered: the use of PCDD/F contaminated citrus pulp from Brazil as feed material for ruminants on a very large scale. Containing about 5-10 ng I-TEQ/kg, this component was about 20-100 times more highly contaminated than average feed with background contamination. Very complex pieces of circumstantial evidence were gathered to prove the correlation between this component of feed and the increase of dioxin contamination in milk. With respect to the huge trade of this feed ingredient on the global market, many other countries were involved. As an immediate response on these findings, the European Community fixed a preliminary maximum permitted level of 500 pg I-TEQ/kg citrus pulp, valid since August 1998.     

Organochlorinated pesticides, PCBs, dioxins, and PBDEs in grey mullets (Liza ramada) and allis shads (Alosa alosa) from the Vilaine estuary (France)

This study aimed to compare the contamination levels of various organohalogenated compounds in two migratory fish species in the Vilaine River in western France. Organochlorinated pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDDs/Fs)), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were analyzed in two diadromous species from the Vilaine estuary, the grey mullet (Liza ramada)—an amphihaline species, and the allis shad (Alosa alosa)—an anadromous species. Fish were collected in spring 2004 and spring 2005, upstream and downstream of the Arzal Dam. PCB contamination varied from 27 to 200 ng?g^?1 dry weight (d.w.). PCDDs/Fs, expressed in toxicity equivalent quantity (TEQ) varied from 0.4 to 2.8 pg?g^?1 d.w. Dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs expressed in total TEQ varied from 1.4 to 18.8 pg?g^?1 d.w. PBDE47 was present at around 2–10 ng?g^?1 d.w. and concentrations of the insecticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane breakdown product p,p′-dichlorodiphenylchloroethylene varied from 1 to 14 ng?g^?1 d.w. For both species, specimens collected upstream were more contaminated. The grey mullet specimens were less contaminated than the allis shad when taken downstream of the dam but were more contaminated upstream. The allis shads presented intermediate contaminant concentrations with a less pronounced difference between upstream and downstream specimens. However, it is thought that shads do not feed when they spawn in the upstream parts of rivers, which should modify the contaminant concentrations. However, measurements in upstream shad samples show an unexpected increase of the contamination, which remains unexplained.     

Monitoring of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, dioxin-like PCBs and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food and feed samples from Ismailia city, Egypt

Concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been determined using GC/HRMS in food (butter, seafood and meat) and feed samples (chicken, cattle and fish) purchased from Ismailia city, Egypt. PCDD/F concentrations in food samples ranged between 0.12 and 3.35 pg WHO TEQ/g wet w, while those in feed samples were between 0.08 and 0.2 pg WHO TEQ/g dry w. Levels of PCB TEQ ranged from 0.14 to 3.2 pg/g wet w in the food samples. The feed samples have an average of 0.35 pg PCB TEQ /g dry w. In this study, butter samples showed the highest contamination levels of PCDD/Fs and PCBs. The PCBs contribution to the total TEQ was on average 63% in seafood and on average 49% for meat and butter. The highest contamination levels of PCDD/Fs and PCBs were found in butter samples. The butter TEQ content is several times higher than that reported in all EU countries and exceeded the EU limits, while the PCDD/F levels in seafood and the feed samples is far below the current EU limit. Generally, congener profiles in the food samples reflect the non-industrialized nature of the city and suggest solid waste burning as a significant source of emission. Nevertheless, the profiles for butter suggest an impact from various sources. In the case of the sum of 16 PAH contamination levels in food samples were in the range of 11.7-154.3 ng/g wet w and feed samples had a range of 116-393 ng/g dry w. Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) has been detected in the range of 0.05-3.29 ng/g wet w in the food samples; butter showed the highest contamination which exceeded the EU standard set for fats and oil. Fingerprints of PAHs suggested both petrogenic and pyrolytic sources of contamination.     

The transfer of active ingredients of insecticides and fungicides from an orchard to beehives

This investigation was undertaken to determine whether active ingredients (AIs) of currently recommended plant protection products (PPPs) could be transferred to beehives from apple and pear trees. A field trial was carried out with apple trees of Ligol and Idared variety, and pear trees of Conference variety. For pest and diseases control of fungal origin, recommended PPPs were applied. Samples of flowers from the above-mentioned varieties of fruit trees, of bees, brood and honey from beehives located in their direct neighborhood were collected regularly and analyzed for the presence of lambda-cyhalothrin (an insecticide) and cyprodinil, captan, fluopyram, kresoxim-methyl, penthiopyrad and trifloxystrobin (fungicides). In samples of flowers of Ligol variety, fluopyram residues (on average 0.621 µg single flower^?1) were at the highest levels, whereas in samples of pear flowers of Conference variety, and in flowers of Idared variety, captan residues (on average, respectively, 0.705 and 165.7 µg single flower^?1). In samples of bees and honey, residues of five AIs were detected, and in brood six AIs, whereby in each case captan residues prevailed, respectively, up to 585.2, 51.52 and 126.5 µg kg^?1 bees and honey. In the honey, significantly larger residues of captan were found out than maximum residue level (MRL) for this AI – 103.04% MRL. In the case of any AI, the daily intake did not exceed 0.002% acceptable daily intake (ADI).     

Risk assessment of boron in glass wool insulation

Background, aim and scope  Glass wools are man-made vitreous fibres, which consist principally of sodium, calcium and magnesium silicates, but may contain smaller amounts of other elements, including boron. The boron contents originate from the use of borates in the glass melting process as a glass former and a flux agent. During the production and application of glass wool insulation products, workers may legally be exposed to glass fibre up to the occupational limit value, commonly of 1 fibre/cm³. However, in practice, the fibre exposure will be at least ten times lower. Boron is a non-metallic element widely distributed in nature, where it occurs as boric acid, borates and borosilicates. Humans are mainly exposed to boron via vegetarian food and drinking water, mineral supplements and various consumer products. Boron is an essential element for plant growth, but the essentiality for humans is not proven, although intakes of trace amounts of the element seem to be useful for bone health and proper brain function; higher concentrations of boron, however, may be toxic. In relation to the European Union legislation on dangerous substances, an EU Expert Group has recommended classifying boric acid and borates with risk phrases for reproductive toxicity. The aim of this paper is to assess whether the new EU hazard classification of boron compounds should imply that glass wool products used for building insulation in the future should be labelled, “may impair fertility and cause harm to the unborn child”, because of the low boron content. Materials and methods  Boron intakes are estimated in a worst-case occupational situation with human exposure to glass wool fibres at the occupational limit of 1 fibre/cm³ by calculation of the mass of the amount of fibres inhaled during an 8-h work day. Fibres are supposed to be cylinders of glass with a length of 30 μm, an average diameter of 1.5–2 μm and containing either 1.5% or 3.5% boron. As a worst-case scenario, the density of the fibres is set to 2,700 kg/m³. The inhalation rate of the individuals at moderate work load was set to 2 m³/h. A worst-case scenario also corresponds to 100% retention and to 100% solubility of the retained fibres in the lungs. Results  With the normal boron content of 1.5% in glass wool fibres for building insulation, the extra daily occupational boron intake/uptake will be 0.03–0.06 mg B for 5 days a week. For more uncommon glass wool with maximum boron content of 3.5%, the worst-case daily boron intake/uptake will be 0.08–0.16 mg B. The main boron exposure in the general population is from vegetarian food, and the average daily dietary intake with food is estimated to 1.2–1.5 mg B/day. In addition, significant intakes may come with drinking water, especially from mineral water. In some instances, exposure from mineral supplements, cosmetics and other consumer products may be significant. For example, individuals taking mineral supplements, e.g. for bodybuilding, may have an additional intake to that of 1–10 mg/day. During the years, various organisations have recommended safe intake values for boron. Recently, the Scientific Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has established the ‘Tolerable Upper Intake Level’ (UL) for the intake of boron (boric acid and borates) at 0.16 mg B/kg body weight per day or about 10 mg B/day for an adult. Discussion  The calculated, worst-case exposure scenario during an 8-h work day will result in an extra daily boron intake that only corresponds to about 10% of the average daily adult boron intakes through food and drinks of about 1.5 mg. The inter-individual variations in boron intakes from foods, water and supplements will be much greater than an eventual, very worst-case, additional intake of boron from inhalation of glass wool fibres. In addition, the combined intakes are far lower than the ‘Tolerable Upper Intake Level’ of 10 mg B/day for a person weighing 60 kg, as recommended by the European Food Safety Agency. The potential boron intake from inhalation of glass wool fibres is also much lower than boron intakes by workers in the boron industry, who at the present occupational limit value will be exposed to 50 mg of boron 5 days a week, or 100 times more than the worst case for glass wool fibres. Furthermore, in practice, exposure levels will mostly be ten to 100 times lower than the occupational limit used here as a worst case. Conclusions  The estimated boron intake from inhalation of glass wool fibres in occupational settings will be insignificant and without any health risks, even in the case of non-compliance with the occupational limit value. Any proposal requiring hazard labels on commercial glass wool products for building insulation, because of the boron content, is not supported by the present scientific knowledge. Recommendations and perspectives  The European Commission should ensure that the new EU hazard classification of boron compounds is not applied to commercial glass wool products for building insulation having a low content of boron.     

Endocrine disruptors in bottled mineral water: total estrogenic burden and migration from plastic bottles

Background, aim, and scope  Food consumption is an important route of human exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals. So far, this has been demonstrated by exposure modeling or analytical identification of single substances in foodstuff (e.g., phthalates) and human body fluids (e.g., urine and blood). Since the research in this field is focused on few chemicals (and thus missing mixture effects), the overall contamination of edibles with xenohormones is largely unknown. The aim of this study was to assess the integrated estrogenic burden of bottled mineral water as model foodstuff and to characterize the potential sources of the estrogenic contamination. Materials, methods, and results  In the present study, we analyzed commercially available mineral water in an in vitro system with the human estrogen receptor alpha and detected estrogenic contamination in 60% of all samples with a maximum activity equivalent to 75.2 ng/l of the natural sex hormone 17β-estradiol. Furthermore, breeding of the molluskan model Potamopyrgus antipodarum in water bottles made of glass and plastic [polyethylene terephthalate (PET)] resulted in an increased reproductive output of snails cultured in PET bottles. This provides first evidence that substances leaching from plastic food packaging materials act as functional estrogens in vivo. Discussion and conclusions  Our results demonstrate a widespread contamination of mineral water with xenoestrogens that partly originates from compounds leaching from the plastic packaging material. These substances possess potent estrogenic activity in vivo in a molluskan sentinel. Overall, the results indicate that a broader range of foodstuff may be contaminated with endocrine disruptors when packed in plastics.