Race, Ethnicity and Disasters in the United States: A Review of the Literature

In this paper we synthesise past disaster research that addresses issues of race and ethnicity in the United States. Using an eight-stage typology to organise the findings, this literature review presents the results from a wide range of studies. The synthesis shows how various racial and ethnic groups perceive natural hazard risks and respond to warnings, how groups may be differentially affected, both physically and psychologically, and how disaster effects vary by race and ethnicity during the periods of emergency response, recovery and reconstruction. We show that studies have important findings, many illustrating that racial and ethnic communities in the US are more vulnerable to natural disasters, due to factors such as language, housing patterns, building construction, community isolation and cultural insensitivities. By presenting these studies together, we are able to witness patterns of racial and ethnic inequalities that may be more difficult to see or interpret in individual studies that take place in one specific time and place. We conclude the review with policy and research recommendations.     

Ethnicity, politics and inequality: post-tsunami humanitarian aid delivery in Ampara District, Sri Lanka

The provision of humanitarian aid at times of disaster in multi-ethnic community settings may lead to conflict, tension and even the widening of the distance between various ethnic groups. That aid agencies distribute humanitarian aid directly to affected communities, to speed up recovery, may often lead to chaos and the intensification of ethnic sentiments. The new distribution mechanisms introduced for the delivery of tsunami aid in Ampara District, Sri Lanka, did not recognise local networks and the culture of the ethnically mixed community setting. This paper analyses post-tsunami aid distribution in Ampara and shows how such an extemporised effort in an ethnically cognisant context increased ethnic division, inequality and disorder, while marginalising the poor segments of the affected population. It recommends the inclusion of local networks in aid dissemination as a measure for improving ethnic neutrality and social harmony in disaster-hit multi-ethnic communities.     

Flood risk and inequalities between ethnic groups in the floodplains of England and Wales

Previous research has shown that many vulnerable communities experience disproportional exposure to flood risk. This paper, though, is the first to look at broad ethnic/racial group differences in the United Kingdom. It contends that differences in culture and language, especially those of new immigrants, bestow vulnerabilities on such communities, resulting in a lack of knowledge that enables people to be aware, to be prepared, or to recover expediently after a flood emergency. Using UK 2011 Census data and Environment Agency flood maps, the paper demonstrates that it is the non‐white communities in Wales that confront the most disproportionate level of flood risk: 23 per cent as compared to 11.4 per cent of their white neighbours. In contrast, the difference in flood risk between white and non‐white ethnic/racial groups in regions of England is within a range of plus or minus two per cent, except for in Yorkshire and The Humber where white populations face a much greater risk of flooding.     

Risk analysis of the 1970 san antonio diphtheria epidemic*

Prediction of disease patterns for communicable diseases with low prevalence rates is difficult because of the random variations inherent in the data Smoothing of prevalence or incidence data prior to the analysis may facilitate these predictions. All of the analyses are based on census tract characterisiics. The disadvantages of this type of data are that the boundaries are arbitraty and lead to some heterogenous tracts. Also, the analyses depend totally on aggregate rather than individual data. The advantage of working with this type of data is its availability for all metropolitan areas. The San Antonio diphtheria epidemic has been previously referred to as an ethnic epidemic. This paper shows that it is even more an epidemic of lower socioeconomic groups. In this region of the country, socioeconomic characteristics are almost indistinguishable.     

Representing Refugees: The Role of Elites in Burundi Refugee Society

Among Burundi refugees in Tanzania, men who have a university education and know English or French are most likely to represent their concerns to officials, particularly those from UNHCR. Officials consequently learn about the perspectives of refugees from these men. Based upon findings from two years of field, research in Tanzania, the history of relations between ethnic Hutu elites and the peasantry in Burundi is outlined and it is explained why education has assumed such pronounced significance in Burundi refugee society. The use of ethnicity as a political tool for elite refugees is also described. It is concluded that elite refugees may not, as is often claimed, represent the refugee majority.     

Putting houses in place:1 rebuilding communities in post‐tsunami Sri Lanka

This paper interrogates the social and political geographies of resettlement and reconstruction of temporary and permanent shelters, which are fundamental to rebuilding tsunami‐affected communities. War and ethnic cleavages are an endemic feature of Sri Lanka's social polity, and uneven development processes in the country are clearly visible. This paper draws attention to these spaces of inequality by drawing on in‐depth interviews and participant observation carried out in Eastern and Southern Sri Lanka. It argues that communities' concerns and anxieties regarding displacement and resettlement have tended to be articulated against prevailing fault lines of war and inequality. This is the backdrop against which communities negotiated the recovery process. My fieldwork shows that it is critical to understand that disaster and development relief are ingrained within context specificities. Relief efforts therefore need to recognise that the process of ‘putting houses in place’ should be embedded within local social relations.     

地震动物异常的群体效应

本文试图讨论研究地震动物异常时需要注意的另外一个方面,即动物群体对地震动物异常可能有什么影响。为此就几种简单情况提出了相应的数学模型,所得的理论曲线所显示的变化趋势与实际情况基本吻合。结果表明,动物的群体效应应该作为研究地震动物异常的一个值得考虑的因素。     

林火行为预测预报专家系统

在针对我国大兴安岭林区典型可燃物进行实验的基础上,参考美国北方林火实验室编制的BEHAVE程序中的数学模型,提出了一整套估算森林地表火火行为特征量的表达式。在此基础上,通过交互式窗口技术、字符型汉字技术和专家系统原理,建立了“林火行为预测预报专家系统”。该系统在输入现场可燃物分布特性参数及相应的地形条件和气象条件后,即能迅速预测火蔓延过程中不同时间段的火行为特征量的值。与野外试验的结果对比表明,预测的结果是合理、可靠的。     

Coping Strategies in an Ethnic Minority Group: The Aeta of Mount Pinatubo

The particular problems arising in the aftermath of natural disasters in indigenous societies in the Third World, especially in ethnic or cultural minorities, have until now received only little attention in social scientific research. The potential of such indigenous groups to use their traditional knowledge and behaviour patterns in coping with natural disasters has been badly neglected. The example of the Aeta in Zambales, Philippines, a marginal group who were hit directly by the eruption of Mt Pinatubo in 1991, shows how traditional economic and social behaviour can in some measure determine their various survival strategies.     

减轻旱灾,谋求旱区可持续发展的综合途径与措施

运用旱区环境社会学的观点和方法，从旱灾、旱区环境与人类行为交互作用的角度分析旱灾，提出减轻旱灾、谋求旱区可持续发展的综合途径、措施与对策。对策的重点是非技术措施与方法，如调适人类开发利用生态资源的观念、方法及群体行为，改善旱区的社会格局、加强旱区人类行为评估和移民管理等。同时提出减轻旱灾，必须强化旱灾的社会学研究。     

颗粒体材料在压缩位移控制加载条件下的力学行为及界面参数对它的影响

采用连续介质快速拉格朗日分析程序(FLAC),模拟了颗粒体材料在压缩位移控制加载条件下的力学行为及破坏过程.颗粒及它们之间的界面被离散为尺寸相同的单元.颗粒被视为各向同性的弹性材料,而界面被视为弹性-应变软化-理想塑性材料.界面完全破坏之后,其内聚力为零而内摩擦角不为零,因而适于模拟颗粒之间的摩擦行为.在双轴压缩条件下...     

预应力混凝土结构火灾研究现状及展望

对预应力混凝土结构火灾的研究现状进行了综述与分析，探讨了预应力混凝土结构火灾研究中存在的主要问题。建议进一步研究应从预应力材料的高温蠕变性能人手，采用非线性有限元进行整体结构分析，逐步建立结构火灾的可靠度方法，并指出结构火灾的计算机仿真分析是一种重要的试验方法。     

建筑结构抗火性能研究回顾及展望

火灾产生的高温可使建筑结构严重破坏甚至倒塌 ,为了保证建筑结构具有足够的抗火能力 ,必须进行建筑结构抗火分析和设计。各国学者对建筑结构抗火性能进行了大量研究 ,取得了丰硕的成果。本文简要介绍火灾科学的产生及发展的进程 ,重点回顾建筑结构抗火性能研究的进展 ,进而对今后发展进行了展望。     

Targeting the Vulnerable: A Review of the Necessity and Feasibility of Targeting Vulnerable Households

This article examines whether it is possible to target vulnerable households within a geographically defined area. It looks first at the justification for targeting and then reviews recent practical experience in actually trying to reach vulnerable groups. As complex emergencies increasingly last longer, strategies to target vulnerable households are common in the protracted phase of the emergency. While this is often necessary because of a decline in resources, it is not always justified by an improvement in nutritional status or food security of the beneficiary population.
Common target groups are the poor and the malnourished, but in complex emergencies these are not always the most vulnerable. Moreover, recent practical experience has shown considerable difficulties in targeting the poor. Methods to target the poor rely on community-based relief committees, whose priorities are not necessarily the same as those of external agencies. This paper gives examples of such targeted assistance programmes in Kenya, south Sudan and Tanzania. The paper concludes that situations where targeting vulnerable households is justified and feasible are extremely limited. It is suggested that if targeting has to be done because of scarce resources, this should be done on a geographical basis and on the basis of nutritional status. Case-study material shows that it is essential to understand the political determinants of vulnerability and to design methods that will reach the most vulnerable.     

Targeting the vulnerable: a review of the necessity and feasibility of targeting vulnerable households

This article examines whether it is possible to target vulnerable households within a geographically defined area. It looks first at the justification for targeting and then reviews recent practical experience in actually trying to reach vulnerable groups. As complex emergencies increasingly last longer, strategies to target vulnerable households are common in the protracted phase of the emergency. While this is often necessary because of a decline in resources, it is not always justified by an improvement in nutritional status or food security of the beneficiary population. Common target groups are the poor and the malnourished, but in complex emergencies these are not always the most vulnerable. Moreover, recent practical experience has shown considerable difficulties in targeting the poor. Methods to target the poor rely on community-based relief committees, whose priorities are not necessarily the same as those of external agencies. This paper gives examples of such targeted assistance programmes in Kenya, south Sudan and Tanzania. The paper concludes that situations where targeting vulnerable households is justified and feasible are extremely limited. It is suggested that if targeting has to be done because of scarce resources, this should be done on a geographical basis and on the basis of nutritional status. Case-study material shows that it is essential to understand the political determinants of vulnerability and to design methods that will reach the most vulnerable.     

水平荷载作用下PCC桩群桩效应数值分析

采用三维弹塑性有限元方法,研究了PCC桩群桩在水平荷载作用下的工作性状。比较了PCC桩群桩和等截面实心圆形桩群桩的水平承载力和群桩效率,得到了PCC桩纵、横向群桩效应的临界桩距;分析了桩距、桩数、桩顶约束条件对PCC桩群桩效率的影响。研究表明,PCC单桩和群桩的水平承载力都较等截面实心圆桩大;PCC桩纵、横向群桩效应的临界桩距分别约为外径的7.4倍和2.8倍;桩距愈小、桩数愈多,PCC桩群桩效率愈小,当设计桩距小于临界桩距时,应考虑群桩效应;PCC桩桩顶固接或铰接时,弯矩分布和承载力差异较大,设计中可以通过改变桩顶的约束条件来协调桩身受力性状。     

沙堆模型动力学特性与灾害系统演化预测研究

基于自组织临界性的理论框架,针对处于周期区与混沌区之间状态的灾害系统,研究其可预测性及预测方法.通过均匀和非均匀沙堆对比实验,发现两类沙堆模型表现出两种动力学行为--自组织临界性和准周期性.采用时序分析、功率谱分析和R/S分析等多种方法分析了两类系统的演化行为,反映了灾害系统的可预测特征;进一步提出了灾害预测的几个研究方向及方法.最后以极值统计法为例,介绍了其在两类灾害预测中的应用.     

具有端部约束的碳纤维布加固混凝土梁的高温弯矩分析

目前国内外对混凝土结构的抗火性能评估几乎都是针对独立构件开展的,很少考虑相邻构件之间的相互约束作用。实际火灾调查与明火试验表明,结构中构件的火灾行为与独立构件有着较明显的差别。本文开展了具有端部约束的碳纤维布加固混凝土梁的高温反应分析,揭示了轴向/转动约束刚度比、梁截面尺寸、跨度、荷载比、加固量、配筋率、保护层厚度和防火涂料厚度等参数对ISO834标准升温作用下约束加固梁的梁端弯矩的影响规律。在此基础上,给出了高温下约束加固梁的梁端弯矩实用计算方法。研究表明:①随着升温时间的增加,约束加固梁的梁端弯矩总体呈现先逐渐增大而后渐趋平缓的趋势;②防火保护(即使防火涂料厚度只有10mm)对高温下约束加固梁的梁端弯矩影响显著。     

岩石单轴压缩蠕变损伤本构模型

准确预测岩石蠕变行为对岩石力学与工程的研究具有非常重要的意义。首先对岩石蠕变机理及典型蠕变曲线进行了分析,其次通过在经典岩石蠕变模型如J体模型的基础上引入损伤理论及Kachanov损伤演化定律,进而建立了一个新的岩石蠕变损伤本构模型。第三,对模型参数的确定方法进行了详细的研究。最后,引用其他学者所开展的不同轴压下岩石单轴压缩蠕变试验对该模型的合理性进行了验证。可以发现本文所提出的模型不仅能够很好地预测岩石的稳定蠕变阶段,而且还能预测经典模型所不能反映的岩石加速蠕变变形。结果表明损伤理论能够很好地反映岩石的蠕变破坏机理,为了能够准确模拟岩石蠕变变形全过程,在经典的J体模型中引入损伤因子是很有必要的。     

GFRP筋混凝土梁耐火性能的试验研究

进行了4根GFRP筋混凝土简支梁在ISO834标准升温曲线下的火灾实验,试件依据ACI440.1R-06进行截面设计,分别考虑了不同荷载比、保护层厚度、端部锚固方式对梁耐火性能的影响。试验结果表明,GFRP筋混凝土梁在火灾中的裂纹开展深度较传统的钢筋混凝土结构明显偏大。由于GFRP筋横向膨胀大更易造成梁底混凝土的开裂与剥落,建议在满足纵筋锚固性能要求的前提下,尽量减少端部J型锚固筋。GFRP筋在高温下的材料性能衰减严重,合理的设计保护层厚度和限制GFRP筋的使用内力,可使GFRP筋混凝土梁的耐火性能满足实际工程的需要。