An integrative model of managerial perceptions of employee commitment: antecedents and influences on employee treatment

An integrative model of antecedents and outcomes of managerial perceptions of employee organizational commitment was developed and tested with 490 employees of a publicly owned U.S. manufacturing firm. The results are consistent with predictions showing that self‐reported affective commitment and supervisor‐focused impression management predicted managerial perceptions of affective commitment, whereas age, tenure, education, training and development, and self‐focused impression management were related to managerial perceptions of continuance commitment. Furthermore, manager‐rated affective and continuance commitment were differentially related to supervisory treatment of the employee (i.e. receiving contingent rewards and non‐contingent punishment). The results of this study show how managers develop perceptions of affective and continuance commitment, and through their associated treatment of employees, has important implications for the ways managers may serve to enhance or detract from employee contributions to the organization. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Another look at the locus of control–organizational commitment relationship: it depends on the form of commitment

Previous studies imply that individuals with an external locus of control (LOC) are less likely to be committed to their organizations. More recent work on organizational commitment has suggested that commitment is not a unidimensional construct and can take several forms (e.g., affective and continuance). Using a sample of 232 employees of a Canadian governmental agency, we examined the relations between LOC and two different forms of organizational commitment that have been found to have different antecedents and consequences. We found that internal LOC was associated with affective commitment and external LOC was associated with continuance commitment. Implications for research and practice are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A multi‐rater assessment of organizational commitment: are self‐report measures biased?

Most investigations of organizational commitment have been conducted using self‐report measures, however, the veracity of self‐reports is often questioned. In a sample of 79 public‐sector administrative staff, we assessed two types of organizational commitment (affective and continuance) from the perspective of three different sources of raters (self, peer, and supervisor) to test three explanations of the factors influencing self‐report measures (observational opportunities, simple defensiveness, and moderated defensiveness). The pattern of correlations among the measures, analysed using the composite direct product multitrait–multirater approach, suggested that self‐report commitment measures are affected mainly by observations or experiences of the self‐reporter rather than by systematic bias related to defensive responding. This increases our confidence that scores from self‐report measures of affective and continuance commitment are veridical. Further, self‐ and peer‐based measures of commitment were largely redundant in the prediction of a job‐performance criterion whereas supervisory measures added unique predictive variance. Implications are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Examination of the combined effects of work values and early work experiences on organizational commitment

We tested the hypothesis that the influence of early work experiences on organization commitment would be moderated by the value employees place on these experiences. We measured work values in two samples of recent university graduates prior to organizational entry, and obtained measures of commensurate work experiences and three forms of commitment (affective, continuance, and normative: Allen and Meyer, 1990) on different occasions following entry. Regression analyses revealed that values and experiences did interact in the prediction of affective commitment and normative commitment, but that the nature of the interaction was different for different work value/experience combinations. The findings provide some challenge to the common sense assumption that positive work experiences will have the strongest effect on commitment among those who most value such experiences. Implications for research and practice are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Leadership self‐efficacy and managers' motivation for leading change

This study develops and tests a leadership model that focuses on managers' motivation for attempting the leadership of change. The construct of leadership self‐efficacy (LSE) is defined, and a measure comprising three dimensions (direction‐setting, gaining followers' commitment, and overcoming obstacles to change) is developed. Based on Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory, the primary hypothesis is that high LSE managers will be seen by direct reports as engaging in more leadership attempts. Relationships are also proposed between LSE and several factors that are expected to influence this confidence judgment. Managers' organizational commitment and crisis perceptions are modelled as potential moderators of the relationship between LSE and leadership attempts. The model was tested through surveys distributed to managers (n = 150) and their direct reports (n = 415) in a real estate management company and an industrial chemicals firm. Positive relationships (p < 0.05) were found between the first two dimensions of LSE and managers' leadership attempts. An interaction effect involving organizational commitment was discovered for the LSE/overcoming obstacles dimension (p < 0.05). Several positive relationships were found between LSE dimensions and proposed antecedents, including self‐esteem (p < 0.05), subordinates' performance abilities (p < 0.05), and managers' job autonomy (p < 0.05). Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationships among five forms of commitment: an empirical assessment

This paper examined whether Morrow's (1993) model of five universal forms of work commitment (affective organizational commitment, continuance organizational commitment, career commitment, job involvement and work ethic endorsement) has empirical support. The paper explored the discriminant validity among the five scales of these commitment forms. It also tested Morrow's model regarding the interrelationships among them in comparison with an alternative conceptualization proposed by Randall and Cote (1991). Two hundred and thirty‐eight nursing staff from two hospitals in western Canada were surveyed. Results of confirmatory factor analysis (LISREL VIII) and correlation analysis showed an acceptable discriminant validity among the five commitment foci. The results of path analysis (LISREL VIII) showed a poor fit with the data of Morrow's model and a better fit with the alternative model of Randall and Cote. Revised models based on the modification indices from both models were tested, and supported the Randall and Cote approach. The paper concludes with implications regarding the continuing assessment of Morrow's conceptualization to establish an acceptable definition and measurement of universal forms of work commitment. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Etzioni's model of organizational involvement: A perspective for understanding commitment to organizations

There are two predominant views of organizational commitment: instrumental and affective. The purpose of the paper is to explore the extent to which an adapted version of Etzioni's macro organizational model of involvement may serve as a single model of both affective and instrumental perspectives of organizational commitment. Moral commitment and alienative commitment are treated as affective forms of organizational attachment, and calculative commitment is treated as an instrumental form of organizational attachment. The paper employs five samples for the investigation. It develops scales for measuring each of the three dimensions of commitment. The paper concludes that organizational commitment is multidimensional. It also concludes that employees report a mixture of commitment types. Evidence is offered in support of the affective character of moral and alienative commitment. Although the evidence is equivocal, there is support for the independence of the two dimensions of affective commitment: moral and alienative. Evidence is also offered for the differential association of the three dimensions of organizational commitment with related aspects of organizational behavior. The paper extends our understanding of organizational commitment by providing a place for both instrumental and affective forms of psychological attachment to organizations. It offers scales which may be used for future research, and it suggests research which may extend the adapted model in this paper as well as provide direction for practising managers.     

Organizations and supervisors as sources of support and targets of commitment: a longitudinal study

The main objective of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived support and affective commitment, and the linkages between these constructs and some of their common antecedents and consequences. More precisely, using a sample of 238 employees, we conducted a longitudinal study to examine the linkages between the favorableness of intrinsically and extrinsically satisfying job conditions, perceived organizational support, perceived supervisor support, affective commitment to the organization and supervisor, and turnover. Affective commitment to the supervisor was found to completely mediate the effect of perceived supervisor support on turnover, whereas neither perceived organizational support nor organizational affective commitment were significantly related to turnover. Perceived organizational support partially mediated the effect of favorable intrinsically satisfying job conditions on organizational affective commitment and fully mediated the effect of extrinsically satisfying job conditions on organizational affective commitment. Finally, perceived supervisor support totally mediated the effect of favorable intrinsically satisfying job conditions on affective commitment to the supervisor. As a whole, findings suggest that exchange relationships between employees and their supervisors should be further investigated in future turnover research. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Job satisfaction and organizational continuance commitment: a two-wave panel study

The temporal relationship between job satisfaction and organizational continuance commitment over 13 months was examined in 295 professional employees of a British engineering company using LISREL with latent variables analysis. The cross-lagged path coefficients in the LISREL models were not significantly positive, suggesting that the relationship between these two variables was spurious and due to error variance. Test–retest coefficients for both variables were moderately positive, showing that the relative ranking of individuals on these variables was fairly stable over time.     

Organizational commitment,turnover and absenteeism: An examination of direct and interaction effects

A three component model of organizational commitment was used to study job withdrawal intentions, turnover and absenteeism. Affective commitment emerged as the most consistent predictor of these outcome variables and was the only view of commitment related to turnover and to absenteeism. In contrast, normative commitment was related only to withdrawal intentions while no direct effects for continuance commitment were observed. Continuance commitment, however, interacted with affective commitment in predicting job withdrawal intentions and absenteeism. The form of the interaction was such that high sunk costs tempered relationships between affective commitment and the relevant outcome variables.     

Work-related commitment and job performance: it's also the nature of the performance that counts

This study tested the proposition that relationships among the various types of work-related commitment and job performance are affected by both the form of commitment and the facet of performance under consideration. Results provided some support for this view. As hypothesized, job involvement was related only to performance tied to intrinsically rewarding elements of work, and career commitment was positively related to overall performance effectiveness. Unexpectedly, however, organizational commitment (both affective and continuance) was unrelated to job performance. The discussion is centered on practical implications of these findings and on directions for future research. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The mediating effects of multidimensional commitment on job satisfaction and intent to leave

Structural equation modeling is used to estimate the mediating effects of affective, continuance, and normative commitment on the relationship between job satisfaction and intent to leave. Several competing configurational models are tested to determine whether the best fitting model is one whereby multidimensional commitment fully mediates, partially mediates, or does not mediate the relationship between job satisfaction and intent to leave. The results suggest that contrary to Meyer and Allen's (1991) fully mediated three‐component model of organizational commitment, a partially mediated model fits the data best for this study. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Determinants of organizational commitment in working women: Some implications for organizational integration

This study proposed and examined determinants of organizational commitment in working women. Among the selected determinants of role stress, personal characteristics, and satisfaction with various aspects of the organization, satisfaction with promotional opportunities was die best predictor of commitment. Experienced role stress was the second best determinant, although the observed relationship was inverse. Other variables such as age, education, and need for achievement, found to be antecedents of organizational commitment in earlier empirical studies, failed to predict commitment in this heterogeneous sample of working women. Findings were discussed in terms of the implications for further research and theory development in the area of organizational commitment as well as for the integration of women into modern work organizations.     

Formal mentoring versus supervisor and coworker relationships: differences in perceptions and impact

Formal mentoring programs in two companies were examined regarding (1) the extent to which mentees and mentors agreed on the nature of the mentoring relationships and (2) the extent to which dimensions of mentoring relationships were related to outcomes for the mentees, compared with the extent to which dimensions of supervisory and coworker relationships were related to the same outcomes: job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions. Mentors were at least two hierarchical levels above the mentee, and both were part of the companyies' formal mentoring program. Sixty‐one pairs of mentors and mentees participated. Overall, there was little agreement between mentees and mentors regarding the nature of the mentoring relationship. Furthermore, the mentoring relationship was not related to mentee outcomes, while supervisory and coworker relationships were. It is suggested that, if one desires to affect job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and organizational commitment, mentoring functions may be best performed by supervisors and coworkers rather than assigned formal mentors from higher up in the organizational hierarchy. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Individual and group determinants of employee absenteeism: Test of a causal model

This study examined whether an employee's level of absenteeism was affected by age, organizational tenure, perceptions of interactional justice, affective and continuance commitment, and the perceived absence norm in the employees' work unit or department. One hundred and sixty-six nursing and food services employees in a mid-size chronic care hospital provided attitudinal and perceptual data on an employee survey. Absence data (absence frequency and total days absent) were collected during the 12-month period immediately following an employee survey. Hypothesized relations between the various individual- and group-level factors and employee absenteeism were specified in a structural model and tested using LISREL 7 (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1989). General support was found for the study hypotheses.     

Self-monitoring and turnover: The impact of personality on intent to leave

Employee turnover is a topic of considerable interest within most organizations. Despite years of research, the antecedents of turnover remain elusive. Traditionally, studies have focused on job satisfaction and organizational commitment as the primary precursors of voluntary (as distinguished from involuntary) turnover. Increasingly, however, researchers have suggested investigating possible personality variables that may help explain even more variance in turnover. The social psychological construct of self-monitoring was found to be such a variable. After the traditional predictors of satisfaction and commitment had been entered, self-monitoring accounted for previously unexplained variance in turnover intentions. Furthermore, the pattern of relationships among the variables of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions differed for high and low self-monitors. Specifically, commitment was a better indicator of intent to leave among low self-monitors but job satisfaction showed a stronger relationship among high self-monitors. Implications for the organization and suggestions for further research are discussed.     

Antecedents of organizational commitment across occupational groups: A meta-analysis

This meta-analysis examines whether the relationships between organizational commitment (OC) and its antecedents differ across occupational groups. Two models representing different antecedents are proposed: the member model, presented by the personal variables, and the organization model, presented by role related, structural and work experiences variables. The study is based on 98 samples with correlational data for the relationships between OC and its antecedents. The total sample was divided into two main occupational groups: white collar employees, subdivided into professionals and nonprofessionals, and blue collar employees. The findings reveal that in general the relationship between OC and personal antecedents, representing the member model, is stronger for blue collar and nonprofessional white collar employees than for professional employees. For the role-related, structural, and work experiences antecedents, representing the organization model, differences among the occupational groups were found to be less consistent. In general, the findings demonstrate that the member and the organization model operate differently for varying occupational groups. The findings are discussed in terms of the need for elaboration of the existing explanations for the development of OC.     

Consistency of implications of three role stressors across four countries

Relationships between role stressors (ambiguity, overload, and conflict), anxiety, commitment (affective and continuance), and turnover intention were examined. These variables were measured via a survey of 1396 nurses in a total of 15 hospitals in Hungary, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Three role stressors were expected to predict anxiety and indirectly predict intention to leave. Anxiety was expected to predict affective and continuance commitment, and anxiety, affective commitment, and continuance commitment were expected to predict intention to leave the hospital. Although mean score differences were expected across countries, direction of the relationships between variables were expected to be the same, which would indicate consistency regarding the implications of three role stressors across countries. AMOS's structural equations modeling program was used to test a multi‐group manifest variable path analysis. Results yielded support for the proposed relationships (NFI = 0.93; TLI = 0.89). It was tentatively concluded that stress is a culture‐general process. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A test of value congruence effects

This study investigated value congruence effects on organizational commitment and job satisfaction. We used the competing values framework to measure values, and response‐surface methodology employing polynomial regression equations to investigate congruence effects. Our sample, 1,358 hospital employees, made judgments about their personal preferences for the four competing value sets—internal process, open systems, rational goal, and human relations. They also rated how much the same values were operating in the organization. We predicted that organizational commitment and job satisfaction would be maximized when a ‘match’ or ‘congruence’ occurred between the two component value measures. We evaluated congruence effects using the following criteria: (1) the proportion of variance explained by the overall equation was significant; (2) the quadratic and interaction terms were significant individually and as a set, and their signs were in the right direction; (3) the implied constraints were valid; and (4) no higher‐order terms beyond those indicated by the model were significant. The results indicated that although quadratic and interaction components were present in all eight models, they were weak in their support for congruence. The study's findings suggested that congruence effects were relatively unimportant compared to main effects in explaining variance in organizational commitment and job satisfaction, at least in the large organization we investigated in this study. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

不良安全文化的特征:事故报告再分析

通过对高风险组织安全管理及事故的研究,对事故报告进行文化意义上的编码分析,揭示导致事故发生的不良安全文化特征。该报告再分析的材料是厂内档案可查的事故报告61份,根据其中55份事故报告的专家编码分析结果,得到了不良安全文化的特征是较低水平的管理对安全的承诺、较差的安全遵守、缺乏应急管理的有效措施、沟通与协调障碍。通过聚类分析,安全文化的各因素可以进一步归为两大类安全促进因素与安全保健因素。从文化的角度来看,分别对应着对组织的承诺和对人的承诺两个维度。