The mining industry and the natural environment

Environmental considerations have become central to future developments in the Australian mineral industry and have affected the level of federal involvement in the industry. The Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is now an important stage in the assessment of proposed mining projects. This paper examines two major federally sponsored inquiries into Australian mining projects — Fraser Island sand-mining and the Ranger uranium project — and then discusses subsequent events and future prospects.     

Innovation in the minerals industry: Australia in a global context

The pattern of innovation in the global minerals industry is changing as the industry becomes increasingly globalised. In this paper, we look at the structure of innovation in the industry and the drivers of change. We first consider the broad international trends and then examine these more closely with special reference to the Australian industry. Issues addressed include the apparent decline in corporate research and development spending, changing patterns in research collaboration and outsourcing, and the uptake of information and communication technologies in the industry. We also look at the potential implications of these trends for step-change technological developments and at the role of technological innovation in the future development of the industry.     

The Australian coal industry: An economic appraisal

Increasing productivity of open-cut mines in New South Wales and Queensland has been an important element in the expansion of the Australian black coal industry, which now supplies domestic electricity and iron and steel industries as well as increasing export orders. Industry is capable of strong growth but some changes in government policies are needed to ensure that infrastracture is provided and growth is economically efficient and compatible with environmental considerations. Increasing output is likely to prevent the reemergence of manpower problems which once plagued the industry, but such problems could surface if growth is not maintained.     

The role of the Australian minerals industry in world mineral supplies

Australia is one of the world's main producers and exporters of both fuel and non-fuel minerals. Among the main commodities produced for export are bauxite/alumina, iron ore, and nickel—Australia is also an increasingly important source of supply of black coal, especially for Japan, and is a significant producer and exporter of a number of base metals. Resources are adequate to support a substantial expansion of both non-oil fuels and other minerals. The potential for growth, both in terms of specific commodities and in the overall role of Australia in the world mineral industry, will depend to a very large extent on the cost competitiveness of Australian mining and on continuing inflow of capital.     

Mulesing and Animal Ethics

People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) called for a ban on mulesing in the Australian sheep industry in 2004. Mulesing is a surgical procedure that removes wool-bearing skin from the tail and breech area of sheep in order to prevent flystrike (cutaneous myiasis). Flystrike occurs when flies lay their eggs in soiled areas of wool on the sheep and can be fatal for the sheep host. PETA claimed that mulesing subjects sheep to unnecessary pain and suffering and took action against the Australian wool industry that resulted in a number of international clothing retailers choosing not to use Australian wool. Although the Australian sheep industry agreed to phase out mulesing in 2010, there is some uncertainty as to whether this deadline will be achieved. The changing social ethic towards animal welfare suggests that the way the Australian sheep industry manages the phase out of mulesing in 2010 is vital to its future survival and success. It is likely that if mulesing does not cease in 2010 there will be a negative market reaction to Australian wool and the risk of legislation to ban mulesing. To avoid losing control of its animal welfare strategy, the Australian sheep industry should ensure that mulesing is phased out in 2010 and endorse the animal welfare ethic underpinning this change. The industry should also educate farmers and other industry stakeholders in how the changing social ethic for animal welfare can create new market opportunities for wool.     

A review of the PGM industry,deposit models and exploration practices: Implications for Australia's PGM potential

Australia is prospective for platinum group metal (PGM) mineralisation (in particular primary magmatic reef, primary magmatic by-product, late magmatic and hydrothermal, and alluvial placer type) but its known PGM endowment is negligible compared to that of South Africa, Russia, the USA and Canada. Most Australian PGM projects are operated by mid-cap or junior companies and form part of larger, more diverse project portfolios held by these explorers. Most projects were ‘hot’ while market conditions were favourable. However, as other metals became ‘fashionable’ and market conditions for PGM changed, so did the focus of these companies. Pure PGM companies are rare in Australia. The search for and development of PGM-only deposits in Australia are high risk business activities. No new primary PGM deposits have been discovered since the mid to late 1980s and none of the significant deposits that were discovered or evaluated in the 1980s have been mined. This review suggests that at least several A$10 million but more likely several A$100 million were sunk into PGM exploration and development projects but none advanced to the mining stage. The viability of Australian PGM projects is very sensitive to (1) metal prices, (2) the US$/A$ exchange rate, and (3) large capital expenditure requirements relative to the small size of Australian PGM-only deposits. Most PGM-only projects were initiated at times of high PGM prices. However, advanced exploration, feasibility studies and project development always lagged behind the price booms. South Africa, Russia and Canada contain approximately 98% of the known global PGM reserves. This situation has a very negative effect on the Australian PGM industry as the well-endowed nations continue to receive the lion's share of exploration spend and new projects.     

Heavy equipment maintenance wastes and environmental management in the mining industry

Maintenance wastes, if not managed properly, represent significant environmental issues for mining operations. Petroleum hydrocarbon liquid wastes were studied at an Australian site and a review of the literature and technology vendors was carried out to identify oil/water separation technologies. Treatment technologies and practices for managing oily wastewater, used across the broader mining industry in the Asia-Pacific region, were also identified. Key findings from the study were: (1) primary treatment is required to remove grease oil contamination and to protect secondary oily wastewater treatment systems from being overloaded; (2) selection of an effective secondary treatment system is dependent on influent oil droplet size and concentration, suspended solids concentration, flow rates (and their variability), environmental conditions, maintenance schedules and effectiveness, treatment targets and costs; and (3) oily wastewater treatment systems, based on mechanical separation, are favoured over those that are chemically based, as they simplify operational requirements. Source reduction, through housekeeping, equipment and reagent modifications, and segregation and/or consolidation of hydrocarbon waste streams, minimizes treatment costs, safety and environmental impact.     

The Chinese steel industry

The Chinese steel industry achieved even growth in the 1980s and China is now the world's fourth largest steel producing country. Two factors that have played important roles in this development of the Chinese steel industry are the reform of the system or the strengthening of enterprise autonomy accompanying market reform, and the introduction of advanced technology from Western countries as a continuing policy since the 1970s. The Chinese steel industry still lags far behind those of other steel producing countries in terms of equipment and production technology, however. The present situation and problems of the Chinese steel industry in the 1990s are discussed here, together with a review of its development in the 1980s.     

The internationalisation of the Australian mineral industry in the 1990s

Overseas mineral exploration and mining investment by Australian companies increased dramatically from the early 1990s until 1997. In the wake of the Asian economic crisis and lower commodity prices it declined somewhat in 1998 and 1999. Reflecting their international competitiveness, Australian resource companies were actively involved in projects in about eighty nations in 1999. This study assesses the extent of growth in exploration and mining operations, the distribution between large and small companies and the changing regional focus which has been occurring. It also reflects on some of the key influences on this development. These include a strong domestic finance sector, supporting mining services provision, technological competitiveness, a growing attractiveness of offshore locations and increasing structural impediments at home.     

Commodity booms and their impacts on the Western Australian economy: The iron ore case

Western Australia is a resource-rich province. Since the 1890s, resources booms have played a key role in the development of the state's economy. In the last few years, Western Australia's resources industry has continued to enjoy exceptional conditions created by strong international demand for commodities. This paper aims to examine the likely impact of this commodity boom in the iron ore sector on the Western Australian economy, using a general equilibrium approach. The modeling results indicate that the Western Australian economy will benefit from the expansion in iron ore exports and investment in terms of rising consumption and employment, although at the industry level there will be losers as well as winners.     

黄姜皂素产业生态化初步研究

当前黄姜皂素产业的发展面临严苛的环境约束与国家政策调控风险,整个产业处于不可持续的发展状态中。论文首先分析了黄姜皂素产业活动的环境影响,然后从概念、特征路径等方面初步探讨了黄姜皂素产业的生态化问题,提出基于黄姜皂素副产糖液制精制乳酸产业链以及黄姜皂素抽余渣制有型燃料产业链的产业共生系统。最后指出,黄善皂素产业的生态化转型必须依靠政府的技术创新制度安排与资金投入。     

Restructuring of the aluminium industry

In the 1980s, the basic strategies of the major integrated aluminium companies have been to emphasize added investment in downstream activities at the expense of investment in smelting and raw material supply. The paper examines the rationale for such investment strategies, explores the advantages and disadvantages of downstream investment and presents projections of future demand and capacity in the industry. Overall, the industry appears to be in good shape until the mid-1990s when demand is likely to exceed currently projected capacity.     

An economic appraisal of the Australian oil and gas industry

The author assesses Australian oil and gas production within the context of overall domestic energy supply and demand. Future domestic production of petroleum is unlikely to meet more than 60% of domestic demand after this decade, although gas reserves should be adequate until 2000. Important economic issues - leasing, royalties, taxation, pricing, and exploration incentives - and their relationship to future supply and demand, are identified and evaluated.     

An empirical analysis of productivity: Welsh coal industry

A non-homogeneous variable-elasticity-of-substitution production function is estimated using data for the Welsh coal industry. From 1961 to 1976 output declined, returns to scale increased and the elasticity of substitution fell. At the end of the period, the elasticity of substitution between capital and labour in the coal industry is still large and there may be room for greater employment in the industry at a time of high and rising unemployment, subject to other overall considerations. While marginal productivity of labour in physical terms has been stagnant, price rises in the industry in recent years have been in excess of what was needed to finance wage settlements. Perhaps price rises granted to the coal industry by the UK government were justified, but they require closer scrutiny.     

Planning limestone resources for the Indian steel industry

Most of the two billion tonnes of limestone consumed annually is used either as the basic raw material in the manufacture of cement or as flux input in the metallurgical industries. Of the total flux, 90% is used by the steel industry. The cement industry needs limestone in a finely pulverized form, whereas the steel industry uses it in lump form, with the lumps not less than 12 mm in size. The exploitation of limestone as flux for the steel industry must be scientifically planned. This article covers the methodology of planning, incorporating the study of the detailed status of the resource inventory, demand for limestone, exploration of new deposits, and calculating and manipulating the costs of production, transport and development of each project to match the demand pattern of steel plants. A computer was used for the optimization of supplies and their selection on planning horizons.     

Is the National Water Commission an appropriate institutional and governance structure to address the fundamental requirements of the water and irrigation industry in Australia?

The National Water Commission (NWC) and the $2 billion Australian Government Water Fund (the fund) has drawn attention to the need for innovative and adaptive practices for water use. The NWC and the fund, whilst a critical and catalytic step in the recognition of the current water situation in Australia, has thus far neglected to consider the systemic failures of the water, irrigation and related industries that led to this point. The underlying issue of the efficient allocation of water resources can be resolved by the harmonisation of competing demands (economic, social and environmental) and the establishment of governance structures to reduce institutional impediments. The linking of the fund to National Competition Council (NCC) payments is an important consideration in this process. This paper will argue that governance reform and institutional (re)alignment to remedy the impediments to the efficient allocation of water resources needs to be embedded in and linked to national competition policy principles. This paper will consider the NWC in this context with the aim of informing future policy to consider the systemic failures of the water industry and to forge institutional change for the more effective allocation of water.     

Australia-Japan — a close relationship

A one-day symposium on global energy problems as they affect Australia and Japan was held in Sydney, 29 October 1979. The sponsors were the Australian Coal Association, the Australian Mining Industry Council, the Uranium Information Centre, the Japanese Embassy, the International Visual Information Centre (Tokyo), and the Japan Trade Centre. More than 300 participants included representatives of the mining industry, universities, financial institutions, and state and federal government offices and organizations from both Australia and Japan. The specific purpose of the symposium was to explore the potential of Japan as a major importer of Australian steaming coal, uranium, liquid natural gas (LNG) and liquid petroleum gas (LPG), and to assess the degree to which Australia could provide the projected Japanese demand for these energy fuels. Australia- Japan Energy Symposium, Sydney, Australia, 29 October 1979.     

Environmental and community issues and the mining industry

Much has been said and written in recent years about the greatly increased difficulties faced by the mining industry in meeting the expectations of local communities and in adequately protecting the natural environment. The impression is often given that the industry was completely oblivious of such concerns and needs until the present decade, and that it is now struggling to make up for past neglect. Certainly the standards required by society as a whole have risen, and there is more public discussion than in earlier times, but the managements of many major mining companies have long been fully aware of their obligations to the environment and local communities. To argue otherwise would be to misread the history of the industry and to perform a grave disservice to many dedicated managers of the mining projects of former years.     

The lithium industry: Its recent evolution and future prospects

During the past decade there has been considerable change in the world lithium industry. This paper discusses this change and reflects on likely future developments. Lithium carbonate producers, based in Northern Chile, now play a dominant role in world production. One focus of the discussion is on the current structure of the industry, particularly at the level of the early stages of production. After considering potential growth in lithium consumption in the foreseeable future, the latter part of the paper considers relevant public policy issues concerning the future regulation of the Chilean industry.     

CO2 emissions from Polish cement industry

The cement industry is one of the most significant sources of anthropogenic emissions of CO₂. It is connected with the specific character of the production processes, during which great quantities of CO₂ are produced. Basic actions to reduce CO₂ emissions recommended by the European Union's, Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries, include: reduction of fuel consumption, selection of raw materials with low content of organic compounds and fuels with low coal contribution to heating value. All actions connected with the improvement of energy conversion efficiency of the cement production process cause CO₂ emissions reduction. The use of at most acceptable by the valid standards amounts of waste as raw materials and additives for cement production, also brings about the reduction of significant part of CO₂ emissions. These measures have been and continue to be pursued by the cement factories in Poland. This article describes the evolution of the cement industry in Poland over the period 1998–2008 and the resulting changes in CO₂ emissions and explores the drivers for these changes. The sources of CO₂ emissions in cement industry have been presented in this article as well as a discussion of potential ways to reduce Polish cement industry emissions even further.