THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF WESTERN WATER DEVELOPMENT1

ABSTRACT: Social scientists were included in the planning and design for an integrated, trans-basin water resource project. Within this complex project, a socioeconomic impact assessment (SIA) concentrated on identifying the social, political, and economic issues and potential impacts inherent in developing a city's water rights. Before the SIA began, some of the development alternatives had already generated widespread hostility and organized opposition from communities within the watershed. The SIA involved residents of affected communities in the study design and project planning. The study found a number of components that constituted the concerns, beliefs, and expectations about perceived, potential impacts that might result from the different alternatives. In most cases these issues constituted threats to valued environmental resources, valued community resources, the social environment, the economic base, and a secure future. The social science component was a key factor in the ultimate decision to pursue a particular alternative which was sensitive to the social and political issues, minimized environmental and socioeconomic impacts, and ultimately had support among the communities potentially affected. The experience from this case study suggests that the approach used can be applied successfully in the planning of other water development projects and result in cooperation from the wide range of interest groups that often present costly obstacles to such projects.     

A PROCESS FOR FEDERAL WATER PLANNING AT THE FIELD LEVEL1

ABSTRACT: A process for planning at the field offices of Federal water resources agencies is described. The process involve s both planners and publics in the following four planning activities: problem definition, formulation of alternatives, impact analysis and evaluation (or plan ranking). Evaluative factors are defied as the goals, concerns, constraints, etc. that affected publics and other decision makers consider in ranking alternative actions. These factors serve to drive the entire process and glue the four planning activities together. In contrast to other “models” of the planning process, the four activities are considered to be carried out simultaneously and continually from the beginning of the process. As the planning process proceeds, each activity is repeated a number of times at increasing levels of detail. Various aspects of the process are illustrated by means of an example involving water resources development in Carmel Valley, California.     

RECENT RESEARCH ON EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER RESOURCES1

ABSTRACT: Concentrations of atmospheric CO2 and other radiatively active trace gases have risen since the Industrial Revolution. Such atmospheric modifications can alter the global climate and hydrologic cycle, in turn affecting water resources. The clear physical and biological sensitivities of water resources to climate, the indication that climate change may be occurring, and the substantial social and economic dependencies on water resources have instigated considerable research activity in the area of potential water resource impacts. We discuss how the literature on climate change and water resources responds to three basic research needs: (1) a need for water managers to clearly describe the climatic and hydrologic statistics and characteristics needed to estimate climatic impacts on water resources, (2) a need to estimate the impacts of climate change on water resources, and (3) a need to evaluate standard water management and planning methods to determine if uncertainty regarding fundamental assumptions (e.g., hydrologic stationarity) implies that these methods should be revised. The climatic and hydrologic information needs for water resource managers can be found in a number of sources. A proliferation of impact assessments use a variety of methods for generating climate scenarios, and apply both modeling approaches and historical analyses of past responses to climate fluctuations for revealing resource or system sensitivities to climate changes. Traditional techniques of water resources planning and management have been examined, yielding, for example, suggestions for new methods for incorporating climate information in real-time water management.     

WASTE WATER REUSE IN PHOENIX-HOW VIABLE IS IT?1

ABSTRACT: The Phoenix metropolitan area has a unique combination of circumstances which makes it one of the prime areas in the Nation for waste water reuse. Overriding all of these conditions is the long-term inadequacy of the existing water supplies. The Salt River Valley has a ground water overdraft of about 700,000 acre feet per year. To help alleviate this situation, the Corps of Engineers in conjunction with the MAG 208 is looking at ways to reuse a projected 2020 waste water flow of 340,000 acre feet per year. Reuse options identified include ground water recharge, agricultural irrigation, turf irrigation, recreational lakes, fish and wildlife habitats, and industrial cooling. These look nice on paper but before they can be implemented, some hard questions have to be answered, such as: How acceptable are local treatment plants when 15 years ago there was a major push to eliminate local plants; is the Phoenix area ready for reuse in urban areas; what are people willing to pay for water; who benefits if a city goes to ground water recharge; how much agriculture will be left in the area by 2020? These and other questions must be resolved if reuse is to become a viable option in water resource planning in the Phoenix area. Summary. Large scale reuse of waste water conforms with the national goal of better resource management through recycling. The Phoenix metropolitan area has a unique combination of circumstances which makes it one of the prime areas in the nation for waste water reuse. Some of the most notable conditions are: the existence of a large and rapidly growing urban area which is in the process of planning for future waste water management systems; the existence of agricultural areas which are projected to be farmed well into the future, and the existence of constructed and planned major recreational systems such as Indian Bend Wash which can use recycled waste water; the existence of extensive depleted ground water aquifers; the need for a dependable source for the cooling of the Palo Verde Nuclear reactors; and finally, overriding all of this, the long-term inadequacy of the existing water supplies. Given this, one would expect to find total reuse within the Phoenix metropolitan area. Reuse is taking place with irrigation and nuclear power cooling to the west but there is no long term plan which looks at the Valley as a whole and considers waste water as part of the Valley's water resources. The Corps 208 plan is looking at waste water in this manner but initial analysis shows that although reuse is technically feasible there are many financial, social, institutional, and political questions still to be answered. These include: determining the value of existing diminishing water sources and what people are willing to pay for the next source of water; are people willing to identify priority uses of water for the area so that water of varying quality is put to its highest and best use; will the present institutional boundaries remain to create water-rich and water-poor areas; and will legislation be forthcoming to simplify the complex surface and ground water laws that presently exist? The Corps 208 study will not be able to answer these questions, but the goal at the moment is to identify feasible reuse systems along with decisions the public, owners, agencies, and politicians must make to select and implement them. If some sort of logical process is not developed and public awareness not increased, the chance for a long-term plan to utilize waste water as a major element in the Phoenix area water resource picture, may be missed.     

A HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL RESEARCH PROGRAM1

ABSTRACT: An extensive research program in hydrometeorology was recently initiated in the Chicago region. Major objectives are to 1) develop a real-time, prediction-monitoring system for storm rainfall using a combination of weather radar and telemetered raingage data, 2) determine precipitation measurement requirements for hydrologic design, operation, and modeling purposes, 3) define the time-space characteristics of heavy rainstorms in the Chicago urban area, and 4) establish methods for applying the Chicago findings in other cities. Basic components of the field measurement program are a network of over 300 recording raingages in 4000 mi² in and around Chicago, plus two sophisticated weather radar systems for obtaining real-time information on storm parameters pertinent to optimizing operation of urban water resources systems. The raingage networks are to be used to compile information relevant to both design and operational aspects of urban hydrology. Radars are to be used primarily in developing the real-time operational techniques. Testing and evaluation of the real-time operational system will be done in cooperation with the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Chicago, operator of one of the most complex urban water control systems among major metropolitan areas.     

Water supply,waste assimilation,and low-flow issues facing the Southeast Piedmont Interstate-85 urban archipelago

Rapidly growing cities along the Interstate-85 corridor from Atlanta, GA, to Raleigh, NC, rely on small rivers for water supply and waste assimilation. These rivers share commonalities including water supply stress during droughts, seasonally low flows for wastewater dilution, increasing drought and precipitation extremes, downstream eutrophication issues, and high regional aquatic diversity. Further challenges include rapid growth; sprawl that exacerbates water quality and infrastructure issues; water infrastructure that spans numerous counties and municipalities; and large numbers of septic systems. Holistic multi-jurisdiction cooperative water resource planning along with policy and infrastructure modifications is necessary to adapt to population growth and climate. We propose six actions to improve water infrastructure resilience: increase water-use efficiency by municipal, industrial, agricultural, and thermoelectric power sectors; adopt indirect potable reuse or closed loop systems; allow for water sharing during droughts but regulate inter-basin transfers to protect aquatic ecosystems; increase nutrient recovery and reduce discharges of carbon and nutrients in effluents; employ green infrastructure and better stormwater management to reduce nonpoint pollutant loadings and mitigate urban heat island effects; and apply the CRIDA framework to incorporate climate and hydrologic uncertainty into water planning.     

A decision model for selecting sustainable drinking water supply and greywater reuse systems for developing communities with a case study in Cimahi, Indonesia

Capacity Factor Analysis is a decision support system for selection of appropriate technologies for municipal sanitation services in developing communities. Developing communities are those that lack the capability to provide adequate access to one or more essential services, such as water and sanitation, to their residents. This research developed two elements of Capacity Factor Analysis: a capacity factor based classification for technologies using requirements analysis, and a matching policy for choosing technology options. First, requirements analysis is used to develop a ranking for drinking water supply and greywater reuse technologies. Second, using the Capacity Factor Analysis approach, a matching policy is developed to guide decision makers in selecting the appropriate drinking water supply or greywater reuse technology option for their community. Finally, a scenario-based informal hypothesis test is developed to assist in qualitative model validation through case study. Capacity Factor Analysis is then applied in Cimahi Indonesia as a form of validation. The completed Capacity Factor Analysis model will allow developing communities to select drinking water supply and greywater reuse systems that are safe, affordable, able to be built and managed by the community using local resources, and are amenable to expansion as the community's management capacity increases.     

PLANNERS AS A PUBLIC IN WATER RESOURCES PUBLIC PARTICIPATION PROGRAMS1

This paper suggests a number of benefits in identifying urban and regional planners as a public in public participation programs of water resources planning studies. A perspective on public participation is presented. Recent trends and developing concepts are identified: emphasis on the need to coordinate urban and regional planning activities with water resources planning, increasing system complexity, the goals and objectives orientation of planning, planning for multi-objectives, the evaluation of a broader range of alternatives, and the consideration of water alternatives as only one set of measures to further society's aspirations. One way to assist in capitalizing on these trends is to seek out participation of those in other planning efforts who are involved in planning but on a different level. Because of their intimate knowledge of an areas history, growth and development, political climate, local perceptions of needs and desires, and major problems and issues they are able to contribute a great deal of insight in making the water resources planning effort more responsive at the local level. The paper describes one of the first major efforts at working-level public-planner contact which was carried out as part of the Susquehanna River Basin Study. A regional survey team comprised of an engineer and an economist from a federal agency and a state water resources planner met informally with planners, city managers, and local planning commissions to discuss issues related to water resources and the growth and development of local areas. This effort while only part of the overall public participation program yielded a number of benefits and if expanded and refined would be a very useful experience in other studies.     

Sustainable use of water in the Aegean Islands

Water demands in the Aegean Islands have increased steadily over the last decade as a result of a building boom for new homes, hotels, and resorts. The increase in water demand has resulted in the disruption of past sustainable water management practices. At present, most freshwater needs are met through the use of the limited groundwater, desalinated seawater, and freshwater importation. Wastewater reclamation, not used extensively, can serve as an alternative source of water, for a variety of applications now served with desalinated and imported water. Three alternative processes: desalination, importation, and water reclamation are compared with respect to cost, energy requirements and long-term sustainability. Based on the comparisons made, water reclamation and reuse should be components of any long-term water resources management strategy.     

生态工业园内的水资源循环模型

目前，工业生态学在我国有了很大程度的发展，它已成为环境管理和规划领域研究的热点问题。本文简要介绍生态工业园的概念和理论后，重点阐述了生态工业园区内水资源循环模型的构建，并以青白江工业集中发展区为例，建立工业园区内的水资源循环再生模型，以期对我国的生态工业园区的水资源规划和循环再生利用提供依据。     

Assessment of Environmental Water Demands (EWD) of Forests for Two Distinct Indian Ecosystems

Sustainable use of water and land resources requires that these scarce resources be appropriately allocated among various competing human activities. Worldwide, there is a realization now that sustainable river basin management should be accorded the highest priority, because it deals not only with technical, but also with ecological and socioeconomic aspects, and thus calls for a multidisciplinary and integrated approach. However, most of the policy and planning documents have either remained silent, or have made only implicit reference to the importance of environmental water demand (EWD) and its quantification. Therefore, in the light of its importance, a methodology has been evolved in this article for quantifying EWD for various forested areas in two distinctly different Indian river basins: Brahmani (humid zone) and Sabarmati (dry zone). The article analyzes and discusses EWD estimates at three different spatial levels: river basins, states, and districts within them, and finally presents a comparative analysis of all these results. Findings of the present study will be immensely useful in understanding various ecological issues connected with water resource projects and proposals in these river basins.     

HYDROLOGIC ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES FOR REGIONAL WATER RESOURCES PLANNING1

The emphasis upon comprehensive regional water resources planning in the past decade has encouraged the hydrologic engineer to take advantage of improvements in technology to develop new hydrologic engineering techniques for use in regional planning studies. The new techniques are necessary because the traditional hydro-logic engineering techniques are not always consistent with the increased scope and diversified objectives of regional planning studies. The Hydrologic Engineering Center has been involved in aiding in the development of some of these new techniques as the result of studies that have been made in cooperation with other Corps of Engineers offices. Most of the new techniques being developed emphasize computational procedures developed specifically for use with electronic computers. Applications of new techniques range from framework studies to planning of day-to-day operation criteria. Studies recently completed or in progress include: (1) development of a regional flood control site screening plan for the North Atlantic Region study; (2) use of streamflow simulation for planning and operation of the Missouri River mainstem projects; (3) development of an operation plan for the Arkansas-White-Red Rivers Reservoir System; (4) standard project flood and flood frequency estimates for the Colorado River Basin Framework Study; and several other projects which are described in more detail in the following paragraphs. One of the initial efforts in regional analysis was the formulation of procedures for determining standard project flood estimates for southern California coastal streams using generalized criteria. Techniques were developed that were readily adaptable to the computer and which would determine representative unit hydrographs, losses and standard project precipitation for any location in the study area. The resulting standard project flood estimates were consistent with the accuracy required for framework studies; however, they could be refined easily for design studies. As a result of the recent drought in the Northeastern United States, a study was made to evaluate both present and future water supply reservoirs in that region. The study consisted of computerized studies of the hypothetical operation of a large number of reservoirs as a system. The reservoirs were on many different streams throughout the region and had varying constraints, depending upon the stream and the state in which the reservoir was located. Since only preliminary data was available on the proposed reservoirs, it was not possible to refine the studies to a large degree. However, the models of each system can be easily refined as more accurate design data become available. The development of a computer-aided screening procedure for use in evaluating several hundred potential reservoir sites for the Missouri River Basin Comprehensive Framework Study is a third example of regional analysis. The adopted procedures used available physical, hydrologic, and climatologic data in estimating reservoir storage requirements throughout the basin. Because the procedure is based upon the techniques often used in more refined studies, it is expected that the results of the screening study will be very useful in future planning and design work. Shortcomings of some of the traditional techniques have helped in the development of new techniques. For maximum usefulness the new techniques should: (1) be consistent with the scope, objectives, and requirements of the overall study; (2) use all available physical, hydrologic, and climatologic data without requiring extensive data which may not be available; (3) take full advantage of the capabilities of the computer and associated data processing systems; and (4) produce results which form a firm basis for future, more detailed, planning and design studies instead of being limited in usefulness largely to the study at hand.     

SIMULATION OF SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL CHANGES IN WATER QUALITY WITHIN A HYDROLOGIC UNIT1

Water quality must be considered in the development and planning aspects of water resource management. To accomplish this, the decision-maker needs to have at his disposal a systematized procedure for simulating water quality changes in both time and space. The simulation model should be capable of representing changes in several parameters of water quality as they are influenced by natural and human factors impinging on the hydrologic system. The objective of this work is two-fold. The first goal is to demonstrate the feasibility of developing and utilizing a water quality simulation model in conjunction with a hydrologic simulation model. The model represents water quality changes in both time and space in response to changing atmospheric and hydrologic conditions and time-varying waste discharges at various points in the system. This model has been developed from and verified with actual field data from a prototype system selected for this purpose. The second aim is to set forth procedural guidelines to assist in the development of water quality simulation models as tools for use in the quality-quantity management of a hydrologic unit.     

Scale and Scope in Municipal Energy Planning in Sweden

The present course of municipal energy planning in Sweden is to focus on problems at the local level, adopting a systems view and targeting sustainability. Aims should be set so that they can be covered by available financial resources. The setting of goals and their realization demand co-operation between different municipal administrations as well as the involvement of others in the region. This approach is attractive from a rational perspective but involves the usual planning quandaries as illustrated by Uppsala's recent plan. The weaknesses of the present course include breaking down national goals into local problems, integrating responsibilities and weighing alternatives against one another. A general strength of planning appears to be its capacity to generate alternatives. However, this capacity depends on the order in which technological, economic and ecological aspects are handled. Starting by considering environmental aspects gives a clear direction but risks narrowing the number of options prematurely.     

ASSESSMENT ANALYSIS FOR WATER SUPPLY ALTERNATIVES1

ABSTRACT Providing adequate water supplies of good quality is becoming a serious problem in many areas of the United States. Some of the alternatives proposed for meeting the growing shortage of clean-water or cheap-water are reallocation, reuse, and importation. This paper outlines a methodology to assess all of these water supply alternatives by examining the amount and time-staging for development of water sources. In conceptualizing the problem, sources of supply are classified in three categories: primary or base supplies, secondary or effluent supplies, and supplementary or imported supplies. A model of the water system is formulated as a “transportation problem” in linear programming depicting the possible sources of supply which can be used to satisfy the requirements of various water users. The optimizing objective in the model is to minimize the cost of water under various assumptions for operating the system. A case study of the Salt Lake Qty, Utah, area is used to illustrate the application of the model in obtaining optimal water supply allocations for projected future demands. Assessment of alternatives in the study include redistribution of supplies, time-staging of supplies and related treatment facilities, and sensitivity of allocations to changes in costs.     

HYDROLOGIC SIMULATION OF THE BRANDYWINE BASIN1

ABSTRACT: A deterministic hydrologic model, encompassing the hydrologic regime and all water uses, is developed by integrating empirical hydrologic relationships. The Brandywine Basin, located in southeastern Pennsylvania and northern Delaware, is used as an example to demonstrate this modeling effort. The basin is divided into 19 subwatersheds to account for the spatial variation of resource characteristics. The output of the model is the response of the hydrologic system to various inputs such as precipitation, land use characteristics and policy decisions. This modeling effort is applicable to watersheds similar to the Brandywine Basin in size, and once the model is developed and validated, can be applied continuously in the management and planning of water resources such as predicting the hydrologic effects of proposed projects and simulating hydrologic information.     

我国城市污水回用的技术与经济和环境可行性分析

城市污水回用是指将城市污水加以处理再生后回用于可用再生水的地方，取代干净的优质原水，是缓解我国当前水资源紧张的有效措施之一。本文从技术、经济及环境三方面分析讨论了我国发展城市污水回用事业的可行性，结果表明我国城市污水回用不但技术上已经成熟，而且从经济效益和环境效益考虑也是可行的。本文建议我国应该积极、合理、因地制宜地发展城市污水回用事业。     

COMPARISON OF ALTERNATIVE ENGINEERING DESIGNS1

ABSTRACT: Procedures are presented for comparing and evaluating alternative engineering designs for a particular water resources project. By using certain aspects of fuzzy set theory, it is possible to introduce both quantitative and qualitative considerations into the decisionmaking process. In addition, the viewpoints of the various interest groups involved with the water resources development can be realistically incorporated by the evaluation techniques for the alternative designs. Methods are given for eliminating undesirable alternatives and thereby obtaining a reduced set of possible feasible solutions to the problem. Because of the flexibility of the evaluation methods, the viable alternatives should not only satisfy economical, technical. environmental and other types of constraints, but these possible solutions should be politically feasible as well. A method is formulated for checking the sensitivity of the feasible results with respect to the factors that are considered in the analysis.     

UTILIZATION OF MODELS IN WATER RESOURCES1

ABSTRACT: A 1984 survey of water resources personnel was conducted to determine the current and future uses of mathematical models in planning, design and operations of water resources systems. Eighty-six percent of those responding indicated they have used mathematical models in the last year. Lack of appropriate data, inadequate time and funding to do the modeling and lack of models that represent the “real world” situation were the most frequently mentioned constraints to model use. Microcomputers were seen as having a positive influence on mathematical model use in water resources.