Study of Trace and Heavy Metals in Rural and Urban Aerosols of Uludağ and Bursa (Turkey)

The concentrations of heavy, trace elements and major ions measuredin the Uluda and Bursa aerosols were investigated to assess size distributions, spatial and temporal variability, sources and source regions affecting the composition of aerosols in Uluda and Bursa. A total of 81 samples were collected in two sites, one in Bursa city and another in the Uluda Mountain during two sampling campaigns. Daily samples were collected using a high volume sampler on Whatman 41 cellulose filters in Uluda, while three days interval samples were collected in Bursa using an automatic dichotomous sampler on PTFE Teflon filters. Samples were analysed for 15 trace and heavy metals (Al, Fe, Ba, Na, Mg, K, Mn, Ca, Cu), (V, Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Zn), and 4 major ions (SO₄ ^2-, NO₃ ^-, Cl^-), (NH₄ ⁺) using ICP-AES, GFAAS, HPLC and UV/VIS Spectrophotometer,respectively. In general, concentrations of the metals measured inUluda aerosols were lower than those in Bursa. The concentrations of crustal elements were higher in summer than winter, while anthropogenic elements had higher concentrations in winter than summer. Most of the mass of crustal elements was concentrated in the coarse mode while the mass of the heavy metals was concentrated in the fine mode. Factor analysis revealed four factors with sources including crustal, industrial and combustion. Back trajectory calculations were used to determine long range contributions. These calculations showed that contributions were mostly from European countries, former Soviet Union countries, Black Sea and North Africa.     

Biodegradability and compostability of polymers—test methods and criteria for evaluation

The treatment of solid waste in controlled composting facilities is an important possibility for reducing garbage. Natural and synthetic polymeric materials can be used for many purposes, for example, as packaging materials, where compostability is required. A prerequisite for official regulations and the decision as to which materials may be composted is investigations on their biodegradability and the quality of the compost produced. Several standardization groups at the ISO, CEN, and DIN are developing definitions, test methods, and classification systems for differentiating compostable from noncompostable materials. The concept which will be standardized and used in Germany is described in detail. It includes characterization of the test material, determination of the biodegradability using laboratory tests such as simple aquatic batch tests and a controlled aerobic composting test, investigation of the disintegration of the test material in industrial or bench-scale composting facilities, and finally, chemical and ecotoxicological analysis of the compost produced.     

Chemical and Ecotoxicological Characterisation of Oil–Water Systems

An ongoing chemical and ecotoxicological study of Water Accommodated Fraction of oils is presented and the preliminary findings are discussed. The study aims at obtaining improved and realistic data on potential environmental effects of various oils released and weathered at sea. Such data will be used for improving algorithms in present fate and effect models for damage assessment studies and “Net Environmental Benefit Analysis” of response alternatives in various spill scenarios. Preliminary results show that models used to assess effects in the water column will need to resolve the water soluble fraction of oils into more than one single bulk parameter to produce realistic estimates of effects.     

Synthesis and biodegradation of poly(γ-butyrolactone-co-l-lactide)

Biodegradable polyesters were synthesized by ring-opening copolymerization of -butyrolactone (BL) and its derivatives withl-lactide (LLA). Although tetraphenyl tin was the main catalyst used, other organometallic catalysts were used as well.¹H and¹³C NMR spectra showed that poly(BL-co-LLA)s were statistical and that their number-average molecular weights were as high as 7×10⁴. The maximum BL content obtained from copolymerization BL/LLA was around 17%. TheT _m andT _g values of the copolymers showed a gradual depression with an increase in BL content. NoT _m was obtained for the copolymers containing more than 13 mol% BL. The biodegradability of the copolyesters was evaluated by enzymatic hydrolysis and nonenzymatic hydrolysis tests. The enzymatic hydrolysis was carried out at 37°C for 24 h using lipases fromRhizopus arrhizus andR. delemar. Hydrolyses by both lipases showed that an increase in BL content of the copolymer resulted in enhanced biodegradability. Nonenzymatic accelerated hydrolysis of copolymers at 70°C was found to increase proportionally to their exposure time. The hydrolysis rate of these copolymers was considerably faster than that of PLLA. The higher hydrolyzability was recorded for the BL-rich copolymers. The copolymerization of -methyl--butyrolactone (MBL) or -ethyl--butyrolactone (EBL) with LLA resulted in relatively LA-rich copolymers.     

Physical properties and biodegradability of blends containing poly(ε-caprolactone) and tropical starches

In order to assess feasibility of tropical starches (sago and cassava starches) as biodegradable plastic materials, blending with poly(-caprolactone) (PCL), a biodegradable polymer, was carried out. It was confirmed that the physical properties (tensile strength and elongation) of PCL/sago and PCL/cassava blends were similar to those of PCL/corn blend, suggesting that sago and cassava starches can also be blended with PCL for production of biodegradable plastic. However, the properties of all PCL/starch blends were still low compared with those of polyethylene. Enzymatic degradability evaluation showed that lipase degradation of PCL and-amylase degradation of starch increased as the starch content in the blend increased. Burial test of the blends for 1, 3, and 5 months was carried out and the rate of degradation of the PCL/sago blend was confirmed to be slower than those of PCL/corn and PCL/cassava blends. Observation of the film blends structure by scanning electron microscope revealed that the starch was dispersed in a PCL continuous phase. Furthermore, changes in the film surface before and after enyzme treatments were observed.     

Classification of the sugarcane residues and their characteristics—an environmental assessment of mortar with addition of sugarcane residues

Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management - The use of agro-residue in resource-limited regions can be a smart way for civil construction to reduce costs, reduce emissions of pollutant gases...     

How are WEEE doing? A global review of the management of electrical and electronic wastes

This paper presents and critically analyses the current waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) management practices in various countries and regions. Global trends in (i) the quantities and composition of WEEE; and (ii) the various strategies and practices adopted by selected countries to handle, regulate and prevent WEEE are comprehensively examined. The findings indicate that for (i), the quantities of WEEE generated are high and/or on the increase. IT and telecommunications equipment seem to be the dominant WEEE being generated, at least in terms of numbers, in Africa, in the poorer regions of Asia and in Latin/South America. However, the paper contends that the reported figures on quantities of WEEE generated may be grossly underestimated. For (ii), with the notable exception of Europe, many countries seem to be lacking or are slow in initiating, drafting and adopting WEEE regulations. Handling of WEEE in developing countries is typified by high rate of repair and reuse within a largely informal recycling sector. In both developed and developing nations, the landfilling of WEEE is still a concern. It has been established that stockpiling of unwanted electrical and electronic products is common in both the USA and less developed economies. The paper also identifies and discusses four common priority areas for WEEE across the globe, namely: (i) resource depletion; (ii) ethical concerns; (iii) health and environmental issues; and (iv) WEEE takeback strategies. Further, the paper discusses the future perspectives on WEEE generation, treatment, prevention and regulation. Four key conclusions are drawn from this review: global amounts of WEEE will continue unabated for some time due to emergence of new technologies and affordable electronics; informal recycling in developing nations has the potential of making a valuable contribution if their operations can be changed with strict safety standards as a priority; the pace of initiating and enacting WEEE specific legislation is very slow across the globe and in some cases non-existent; and globally, there is need for more accurate and current data on amounts and types of WEEE generated.     

Comparison of the Effect of Plasticizers on PHBV—and Organoclay—Based Biodegradable Polymer Nanocomposites

The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of different plasticizers on the morphology, crystallization, and mechanical properties of poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)/organomodified montmorillonite (OMt) nanocomposites. We investigated three different plasticizers: dioctyl phthalate (DOP), a commonly used additive in the polymer industry, and two natural and biodegradable plasticizers: epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) and triethyl citrate (TEC). The nanocomposites with 3 wt% OMt were obtained by melt processing in an internal mixer. The plasticizers were used alone or in combination with clay in a concentration of 10 wt%. X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy results revealed a partially intercalated structure. The degree of crystallinity was higher for all of the samples compared to neat PHBV, although the melting temperature decreased with the use of plasticizers combined with OMt. The impact strength results were dependent on the interaction between the components of the system. Triethyl citrate was the most effective plasticizer due to its more pronounced interaction with the PHBV matrix, which yielded improvements in processing conditions and PHBV’s flexibility and impact properties.     

Australia's National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil and Other Noxious and Hazardous Substances – Overview and Current Issues

Australia's National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil and Other Noxious and Hazardous Substances (the National Plan) has operated since 1973. The objectives of the National Plan are based on Australia's obligations as a signatory to the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation 1990 and a responsibility to protect natural and artificial (man made) environments from the adverse effects of oil pollution and minimise those effects where protection is not possible.The Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA) is the managing agency of the National Plan, working together with the States and Northern Territory governments, other Commonwealth agencies, ports, and the shipping, oil and exploration industries, to maximise Australia's marine pollution response capability.The 1990s have been a period of significant change for oil spill response arrangements in Australia. The National Plan was extended in 1998 to cover chemical spills and is currently in the process of implementing the oil spill response incident control system (OSRICS). A fixed wing aerial dispersant spraying capability was implemented in 1996 and a research and development program has been put in place. The development of a computer-based National Oil Spill Response Atlas was a major project completed during 1999.     

Characteristics and Bioactivities of Carrageenan/Chitosan Microparticles Loading α-Mangostin

Journal of Polymers and the Environment - This study attempted to develop carrageenan/chitosan based microparticles loading α-mangostin which was extracted from Vietnamese mangosteen skin. The...     

Photo-/Bio-degradability of Agro Waste and Ethylene–Propylene Copolymers Composites Under Abiotic and Biotic Environments

Composites were prepared by two methods, (i) graft copolymerization (GFC) of isotactic polypropylene (PP) with maliec anhydride, (MAH) followed by esterification with coir fiber and (ii) by direct reactive mixing (DFC) of polypropylene (PP) and ethylene–propylene (EP) copolymers with MAH and peroxide with coir fiber. These composites, after molding in films (5×5 cm, m thickness) were examined for susceptibility to biological attack by measuring the percentage weight loss in compost upto 6 months, periodically, and fungal colonization on surface of the samples, when kept as sole carbon source for the growth of Aspergillus niger in culture medium upto 40 days. Photodegradation was evaluated by monitoring the variations in FT-IR spectrum and crack formation after successive treatment with UV light (≥290 nm) for 0, 20, 50 and 100 h at 60°C in the presence of air. Specimens of virgin PP were taken as a reference during all period of photo and biodegradation studies. Significant changes were observed depending on the preparation methods during photodegradation and biodisintegration of composites. DFCs samples were disintegrated faster than GFCs during the composting whereas, in culture, GFCs were covered highly in well uniform way by fungi. It was observed that photo-oxidative ageing directly enhanced the biodegradability of composites as the increase in fungal growth rate and decrease in weight during composting were found. It was concluded that extent of compatibilization had a profound effect on photo-oxidation and biodisintegration of composite material; consequently ester bonds were main units during fungal consumption. Composition of monomers in copolymers was also showing significant effect on the degradability which decreased with increasing content of ethylene in ethylene–propylene (EP) copolymers.     

Design and Characterization of PVA–Methacrylic Acid Based Smart Polymeric System for Controlled Release of Metoprolol

In the present work covalently crosslinked smart polymeric system of hydrogel based on poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) and methacrylic acid (MA) was designed by free radical polymerization with different compositions using glyoxal (40 % water solution) as crosslinker. It was observed that swelling of hydrogel had a pronounced enhancing effect on increasing the concentration of MA due to availability of more ionized carboxylic groups of MA but produced an opposite effect on increasing the concentration of glyoxal owing to less porous structure. As far as PVA is concerned, swelling did not show significant effect on increasing the concentration of PVA. Hydrophilic polymer PVA rich in hydroxyl group pertained to be highly interactive with water. It was examined that the release of metoprolol tartrate decreased with increased concentration of glyoxal, but increased with increase in concentration of MA. PVA/MA hydrogel was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction to study the structure and crystallinity of hydrogel respectively. Morphology was studied through scanning electron microscopy. Furthermore differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis were also performed to characterize thermal stability. It may be concluded that the mechanism of drug release was mainly non-Fickian diffusion.     

Experimental Processing of Biodegradable Drip Irrigation Systems—Possibilities and Limitations

The increased cost associated with the waste removal and disposal of conventional agricultural plastic in contact with the soil combined with the gradually decreasing cost of the biodegradable plastics allowed the commercialization of biodegradable mulching films. Since the conventional thin wall or tape drip irrigation system lies under the mulching film and is used for one season only, it would be desirable to replace it with a biodegradable one. This paper presents the results of a research work investigating the possibilities and limitations in developing biodegradable drip irrigation thin wall pipes and pipes. The first ever experimental biodegradable drip irrigation thin wall pipes were produced. Rigid pipes were also produced for experimental purposes. Manufacturing problems were encountered in the processing of the biodegradable drippers and irrigation thin wall pipes with the experimental materials due to the complex formulation of the raw materials and the fact that the machinery used was specifically designed for PE processing. Experimental biodegradable thin wall pipes made of Bioflex with embedded drippers made of Mater-Bi were produced. The processing problems encountered with the production of thin wall pipes were surpassed during the experimental production of rigid type irrigation pipes. A biodegradable rigid irrigation pipe made of a grade of Mater-Bi, with embedded cylindrical drippers made of another grade of Mater-Bi was produced successfully. A better understanding of the thermal profile of the biodegradable raw materials and the use of processing equipment adapted to this profile might allow in the future the manufacturing of thin wall drip irrigation pipes for agricultural applications, and the use of alternative biodegradable materials.     

Preparation of Magadiite-Sodium Alginate Drug Carrier Composite by Pickering-Emulsion-Templated-Encapsulation Method and Its Properties of Sustained Release Mechanism by Baker–Lonsdale and Korsmeyer–Peppas Model

Journal of Polymers and the Environment - In this study, the nanohybrid drug carrier were synthesized by Pickering emulsion-templated encapsulation (PETE) method to control the...     

Influence of Processing Additives on the Degradation of Melt-Pressed Films of Poly(ε-Caprolactone) and Poly(Lactic Acid)

Melt-pressed films of polycaprolactone (PCL) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA) with processing additives, CaCO₃, SiO₂, and erucamide, were subjected to pure fungal cultures Aspergillus fumigatus and Penicillium simplicissimum and to composting. The PCL films showed a rapid weight loss with a minor reduction in the molecular weight after 45 days in A. fumigatus. The addition of SiO₂ to PCL increased the rate of (bio)erosion in A. fumigatus and in compost. The use of a slip additive, erucamide, was shown to modify the properties of the film surface without decreasing the rate of bio(erosion). Both the rate of weight loss and the rate of molecular weight reduction of PCL increased with decreasing film thickness. The addition of CaCO₃ to PLA significantly reduced the thermal degradation during processing, but it also reduced the rate of the subsequent (bio)degradation in the pure fungal cultures. PLA without additives and PLA containing SiO₂ exhibited the fastest (bio)degradation, followed by PLA with CaCO₃. The degradation of the PLA films was initially governed by chemical hydrolysis, followed by an acceleration of the weight change and of the molecular weight reduction. PLA film subjected to composting exhibits a rapid decrease in molecular weight, which then remains unchanged during the measurement period, probably because of crystallization.     

Characteristics of NO2 Pollution in the City of Gothenburg, South-West Sweden—Relation to NO x and O3 Levels, Photochemistry and Monitoring Location

Concentrations of NO₂, NO, and O₃ from a rooftop monitoring station in Gothenburg, Sweden (2002–2006) were analysed to characterise NO₂ pollution. [NO₂] was shown to correlate strongly and non-linearly with [NO _x ] (NO _x ?=?NO?+?NO₂), in line with observations in other cities. The [NO₂] to [NO _x ] fraction fell initially with increasing [NO _x ]. At [NO _x ] levels >200 ppb, the decline in [NO₂]/[NO _x ] with increasing [NO _x ] levelled out and [NO₂]/[NO _x ] converged towards approximately 0.15–0.16, independent of [NO _x ]. Data from a traffic route site showed the same pattern. This value of [NO₂]/[NO _x ] at high [NO _x ] can be interpreted as the NO₂ fraction of the NO _x emissions from vehicle exhaust. Situations with high NO _x pollution and minimum [NO₂]/[NO _x ] were always associated with [O₃] close to zero. Plotting [Ox] (Ox?=?NO₂?+?O₃) vs. [NO _x ] provided a strong linear correlation for situations dominated by local pollution ([NO]/[NO₂]>1). The slope of the regression, a measure of the primary NO₂ fraction in NO _x emissions, was 0.13 during the day and 0.14 during the night. With stronger winds, the rooftop monitoring station became more similar, in terms of NO₂ pollution, to a city street site and a traffic route site, although [NO₂] was almost always higher at the street/traffic route locations. The EU standard for the annual average of [NO₂] (40 μg m^?3) was exceeded, while the hourly standard (200 μg m^?3, not to be exceeded more than 18 times per year by 2010) was not exceeded at any of the sites.     

Conjugation of Soybean Oil and It’s Free-Radical Copolymerization with Acrylonitrile

The conjugated soybean oil was synthesized through the isomerization reaction of soybean oil to transformed the structure of linoleic acid into conjugated linoleic acid structure, and Rhodium complexes (RhCl(Pph₃)₃) was used as catalyst. The efficiency on the conjugation of catalyst RhCl (Pph₃)₃, tin dichloride dehydrate (SnCl₂·2H₂O) and triphenylphosphine (Pph₃) were evaluated. The results showed when RhCl(Pph₃)₃, SnCl₂·2H₂O and Pph₃ are 9.25, 9.0 and 13.1 mg in 100 g soybean oil respectively, the highest conversion of conjugation achieved 96%. The free radical copolymerization of conjugated soybean oil with acrylonitrile (AN) and dicyclopentadiene (DCP) was studied. AIBN was used as the initiator. FT-IR and ¹H-NMR results indicates that the conjugated soybean oil with AN and DCP did occur free radical copolymerization with the initiator AIBN. The product is light yellow powder. The thermal properties of the soy-based copolymer were investigated by TG and DSC. The initial degradation temperature of polymers is higher then 250 °C.     

PHB/V in Extrusion Coating of Paper and Paperboard—Study of Functional Properties. Part II

Extrusion coating experiments were carried out in the pilot line at Tampere University of Technology (Institute of Paper Converting). Commercially produced 3-hydroxybutyrate/3-hydroxyvalerate copolymer, commercial Finnish paper, and paperboard qualities were utilized as substrates. Functional properties, such as heat-sealing and hot-tack properties, pinhole density, and water vapor transmission rate were determined. PHB/V coatings exhibited approximately four–six times higher water vapor transmission rates (WVTR) than the corresponding LDPE coatings. The incorporation of wax or tall oil rosin into PHB/V improved its water vapor barrier. Curling of PHB/V was reduced by the addition of wax or tall oil rosin into the base polymer. PHB/V provided good heat-sealing characteristics at rather high sealing temperatures. Pinhole density was substantially reduced by using higher molecular weight PHB/V and by incorporating plasticizer into PHB/V.     

Synthesis,Characterization and Antibacterial Activity of Novel β-cyclodextrin Polyurethane Materials

Journal of Polymers and the Environment - The advanced water treatment taken by organic micro-pollution or microbiological pollution water resource has been a hot issue of public concern. In this...