模拟氮沉降对兴安落叶松林凋落物分解的影响

试验施加NH4NO3、KNO3和NH4Cl3种氮肥,设置对照（N0,0 kg·hm-2·a-1）、低氮（N1,10 kg·hm-2·a-1）、中氮（N2,20kg·hm-2·a-1）、高氮（N3,40 kg·hm-2·a-1）4个施氮水平,通过交互试验,研究模拟N沉降对大兴安岭兴安落叶松（Larix gmelinii）林凋落物分解的影响。结果表明,在兴安落叶松林凋落物分解过程中,叶分解最快,其次是枝,分解最慢的为果,在分解16个月后,枝、叶、果的质量残留率分别为76.68%、47.98%和80.43%,3者异极其显著（p〈0.01）。凋落物叶分解95%所需时间为6.71 a,而枝和果所需时间分别为18.07和18.10 a。在模拟大气氮沉降下凋落物分解过程中,施加KNO3,N2处理下的枝、叶、果的质量残留率极显著低于N3处理（p〈0.01）,显著低于N0和N1处理。施加NH4Cl下,N1处理显著低于N0处理（p〈0.05）。在施加NH4NO3下,N1水平处理下的枝、叶、果的分解速率显著增加（p〈0.05）,但是随着施氮量的增加,分解速率就会减慢,N3处理下,有着明显的抑制作用（p〈0.05）,说明氮沉降对于凋落物分解有着促进作用,但是随着时间和氮沉降量的增加,促进作用延缓甚至是抑制作用。     

华山松林凋落物养分释放及土壤生态化学计量特征对模拟氮沉降的短期响应

研究模拟氮(N)沉降下森林生态系统凋落物-土壤C/N/P化学计量特征,对探究在全球气候变化背景下森林生态系统物质循环内在机理具有重要科学意义。以滇中亚高山华山松林(Pinus armandii forest)为研究对象,采用尼龙网袋法于2018年2月—2019年1月在华山松林开展模拟N沉降下凋落叶、枝原位分解试验,分别设置4个N沉降水平:对照CK(N 0g·m~(-2)·a~(-1))、低氮LN(N 5 g·m~(-2)·a~(-1))、中氮MN(N 15 g·m~(-2)·a~(-1))和高氮HN(N 30 g·m~(-2)·a~(-1))。结果表明:华山松林凋落叶和枝C元素均为直接释放模式;凋落叶和枝N元素分别为淋溶-富集-释放和富集-释放模式;凋落叶和枝P元素分别为淋溶-富集-释放和富集-释放模式;凋落叶的C、N、P养分释放速率(40.71%、53.83%、47.06%)均高于凋落枝(20.98%、22.04%、13.15%);各N处理下,凋落叶和枝C释放速率均表现为LNMNCKHN;N沉降总体增加了凋落叶C、N含量,但对P含量无显著影响;N沉降显著降低了凋落叶ω_((C))/ω_((N))和ω_((N))/ω_((P))、凋落枝ω_((C))/ω_((N));凋落叶、枝N、P含量与土壤N、P含量密切相关,土壤P对凋落叶化学计量影响最大,土壤N对凋落枝化学计量影响最大,土壤C对凋落物化学计量影响最小。在短期内N沉降能抑制凋落物分解过程中C、N、P的释放,但对土壤化学计量特征无明显影响,滇中华山松林凋落物分解过程中的化学计量变化特征及养分释放的研究有助于了解森林生态系统对N沉降的响应机理,特别是土壤N、P对凋落物分解的影响将为后续研究的重点内容。     

模拟氮沉降对温带森林凋落物分解的影响

森林凋落物的分解是生态系统养分循环的重要过程,以北京西山地带性植被栎树林（辽东栎：Quercus liaotungensis）为对象,主要研究温带森林植物凋落物分解对模拟氮沉降的响应,为更好地了解氮沉降对温带森林地区凋落物的分解过程提供参考.通过模拟氮沉降,研究不同形态氮（硝态氮、铵态氮和混合态氮）和不同水平氮沉降（对照0 kg·hm^-2·a^-1、低氮处理50 kg·hm^-2·a^-1 和高氮处理150 kg·hm^-2·a^-1）对凋落物分解的影响,在2 年的时间内调查分析了凋落物分解过程中质量损失动态和碳（C）、N 含量及w（C）/w（N）比值的变化.研究结果表明,氮沉降均使凋落物分解速率减缓,且随氮沉降剂量增加,凋落物分解速率相比对照分别减慢了9.88%（硝态氮低氮）、15.02%（硝态氮高氮）、11.46%（铵态氮低氮）、14.62%（铵态氮高氮）、13.04%（混合态氮低氮）和16.20%（混合态氮高氮）.且不同氮沉降类型、不同氮沉降水平间差异显著.不同形态、不同水平的氮沉降显著地增加了凋落物N 含量（P=0.061,P=0.087）,其中混合态氮沉降对凋落物中N 素含量增加最显著（P=0.044）.但在分解过程中,各处理均未对凋落物C 含量产生显著影响.不同水平的氮沉降显著降低了凋落物的w（C）/w（N）比值,而且不同类型不同水平氮沉降对凋落物w（C）/w（N）比值具有显著的交互作用（P=0.011）.综上所述,通过对模拟氮沉降后凋落物残留率等的变化分析,得出氮沉降对温带森林凋落物的分解产生了抑制作用.     

模拟氮沉降对森林土壤化学性质的影响

大气氮沉降的增加对森林土壤的影响是近来生态学研究的重要课题。以鼎湖山季风常绿阔叶林（以下简称为“阔叶林”）、马尾松（Pinus massoniana）林、针阔叶混交林（以下简称为“混交林”）和增城木荷（Schima superba）人工幼林等4种林型土壤为研究对象,采用野外原位模拟大气氮沉降的方法,设置3种模拟氮沉降量,即N0（对照,N：0 g·m-2·a-1）、N5（N：5 g·m-2·a-1）、N10（N：10 g·m-2·a-1）,在模拟氮沉降时间分别为42个月（阔叶林）、31个月（马尾松林）、50个月（混交林）、20个月（人工幼林）后,采集0~20 cm土层的林地土壤,分析土壤的化学性质,探讨不同氮沉降量对不同林型土壤化学性质的影响。结果表明,（1）模拟氮沉降对鼎湖山阔叶林、马尾松林、混交林土壤pH值的影响基本一致,均使pH值下降。其中,当氮沉降量达到N10时,阔叶林土壤pH值降为3.97,与对照相比下降了0.11 pH单位,差异达显著性水平（p〈0.05）。而人工幼林土壤pH值未随着氮沉降量的不同而有明显的变化。（2）模拟氮沉降在近2年至4年的时间内,对阔叶林、混交林、人工幼林的土壤有机质、全氮、全磷、全钾、水解性氮、速效磷、速效钾含量的影响均不明显,马尾松林土壤有机质、全氮、全磷、速效磷、速效钾含量也没有明显变化,但模拟氮沉降导致了马尾松林土壤水解性氮含量明显下降,从95.12 mg·kg-1降至84.39 mg·kg-1,差异达显著性水平（p〈0.05）。（3）模拟氮沉降对鼎湖山阔叶林、马尾松林、混交林等3种林型土壤盐基饱和度、盐基离子Ca2＋、Mg2＋、K＋含量的影响未达显著水平,而对这3种林型土壤交换性Na＋含量的影响则较明显且影响趋势基本一致,即氮沉降的增加导致了土壤交换性Na＋含量明显下降。在N10处理下,与对照相比,这3种林型的土壤交换性Na＋含量分别下降了40.0%、68.4%、50.0%,差异达显著性水平（p〈0.05）。氮沉降对人工幼林土壤盐基离子含量无明显的影响。由此可得出结论：在近2年至4年的时间内,氮沉降的增加能引起鼎湖山3种林型土壤尤其是阔叶林土壤加速酸化,引起交换性Na＋明显淋失,以及马尾松林土壤水解性氮含量明显下降;但氮沉降的增加对木荷人工幼林土壤化学性质暂无明显的影响。后者可能与该林型模拟氮沉降时间较短、林龄较轻而处于快速生长期等因素有关。     

模拟氮沉降对苗圃地土壤动物群落的影响

通过人工喷施氮H4NO3建立了一个模拟氮沉降增加梯度系列,在近18个月的试验处理期间,研究了2003年7月、10月和2004年2月、5月这几个不同季度苗圃试验样地土壤动物群落对氮沉降增加的响应。实验分为5个处理组:对照、低氮、中氮、高氮和倍高氮,分别接受0、5、10、15、30g/(m2·a)的氮沉降量。土壤细菌和真菌的数量总体上随氮处理的加强而持续显著地增长,土壤有机氮含量也持续升高,土壤酸度则不断下降。采样期对土壤动物的个体数量、类群丰度和多样性存在显著的影响,总的来说,土壤动物群落随试验处理期加长而持续增长。土壤动物群落具有显著的垂直分异特征,土壤I层土壤动物个体数量、类群丰度和多样性显著高于II和III层。氮沉降增加对土壤动物群落有明显的影响,表现为施氮处理明显有利于土壤动物群落的发展,但也具有明显的阀值效应。与对照样地相比,各施氮处理样地土壤动物群落水平整体为高,而且随试验处理时间的增加这种差异有加大的趋势;氮沉降增加处理与取样期之间存在显著的交互作用,除了2月取样,中氮处理土壤动物群落水平都处于最高水平,而对照处理一般处于最低水平,这种趋势在最后一次取样中最为明显;氮沉降处理与土壤动物的垂直分布之间也有明显的交互作用:在土壤I层,从对照至倍高氮处理,土壤动物群     

氮沉降增加对原始阔叶红松林蚯蚓种类和数量的影响

氮沉降是影响陆地生源要素生物地球化学循环的主要环境因子之一。以往对凋落物和土壤有机碳降解过程中分解者的作用研究主要集中在微生物方面,而对土壤动物蚯蚓的研究较少。对中国长白山阔叶红松林林地施氮处理6年,施氮量为背景条件下增加N 50 kg·hm~(-2)·a-1,运用手捡法和方形土壤采样器对森林覆盖层和土壤矿质层中蚯蚓种类和数量进行了调查,并采用元素分析仪测定了凋落物和土壤层中的有机碳氮含量。结果显示,在对照和施氮样地,蚯蚓的种类和密度分布模式相似,共观察到4种类型的蚯蚓,分别是表栖类的赤子爱胜蚓(Eiseniafoetida)和环毛蚓(Pheretima sp.)、内栖类和深土栖类的长白山杜拉蚓(Drawidachangbaiensis)及蚯蚓的幼虫线蚓(Enchytraeidae spp.)。其中,Eiseniafoetida种类的密度最大,可以达到25 individuals·m~(-2),其次为Drawidachangbaiensis种类,其密度可达到6 individuals·m~(-2),Pheretima sp.的密度最小,甚至在本次调查的施氮样地并未发现该类蚯蚓。3种功能群在两个处理中总的密度分别为对照样地23 individuals·m~(-2)、施氮样地为31 individuals·m~(-2),长白山阔叶红松林对照和施氮土壤中蚯蚓的种类和密度没有明显差异(P=0.238)。在调查的4个层位中,总碳并未受到氮添加的影响,同时,总氮也并未呈现出显著的变化,这与蚯蚓的研究结果一致。该研究可为氮沉降对森林生态系统的影响的进一步研究提供参考。     

凋落物处理对森林地表CO_2通量的影响及其调控机理

全球变化和森林演替可以导致森林地表凋落物数量和质量的变化,从而对森林地表CO2通量产生影响。本实验对亚热带不同演替阶段的3种,即马尾松林(前期)、混交林(中期)和季风林(后期)进行地表凋落物去除、加倍与置换处理,利用静态箱气相色谱法测定地表CO2通量,并同步测定气温、土壤温度和湿度,分析凋落物质量和数量变化对森林地表CO2通量的影响及其调控机理。结果表明,(1)去除凋落物处理显著降低了不同演替阶段的3种森林地表CO2通量,而加倍凋落物处理可以增加森林地表CO2通量,但不同演替阶段增加的幅度不同,依次为:季风林马尾松林混交林。(2)置换凋落物对不同演替阶段的森林地表CO2通量的影响不同,在演替后期的季风林中,置换混交林和马尾松林凋落物处理均增加地表CO2通量;在演替中期的混交林中,置换季风林和马尾松林凋落物均降低地表CO2通量。在演替前期的马尾松林中,置换季风林凋落物增加地表CO2通量,而置换混交林凋落物降低了地表CO2通量(3)结合测定的土壤温度和水分数据分析得出,凋落物处理引起森林地表CO2通量的变化是通过处理凋落物质量和数量后改变森林地表水热条件来实现的。(4)3个林型的各种处理,地表CO2通量与土壤温度均呈显著的指数相关关系,但不同处理不同地改变了森林地表土壤CO2通量对温度的敏感性,即Q10值。     

凋落物处理对森林地表CO2通量的影响及其调控机理

全球变化和森林演替可以导致森林地表凋落物数量和质量的变化,从而对森林地表 CO2通量产生影响。本实验对亚热带不同演替阶段的3种,即马尾松林（前期）、混交林（中期）和季风林（后期）进行地表凋落物去除、加倍与置换处理,利用静态箱气相色谱法测定地表CO2通量,并同步测定气温、土壤温度和湿度,分析凋落物质量和数量变化对森林地表CO2通量的影响及其调控机理。结果表明,（1）去除凋落物处理显著降低了不同演替阶段的3种森林地表CO2通量,而加倍凋落物处理可以增加森林地表CO2通量,但不同演替阶段增加的幅度不同,依次为：季风林＞马尾松林＞混交林。（2）置换凋落物对不同演替阶段的森林地表 CO2通量的影响不同,在演替后期的季风林中,置换混交林和马尾松林凋落物处理均增加地表CO2通量;在演替中期的混交林中,置换季风林和马尾松林凋落物均降低地表CO2通量。在演替前期的马尾松林中,置换季风林凋落物增加地表CO2通量,而置换混交林凋落物降低了地表CO2通量（3）结合测定的土壤温度和水分数据分析得出,凋落物处理引起森林地表 CO2通量的变化是通过处理凋落物质量和数量后改变森林地表水热条件来实现的。（4）3个林型的各种处理,地表 CO2通量与土壤温度均呈显著的指数相关关系,但不同处理不同地改变了森林地表土壤 CO2通量对温度的敏感性,即Q10值。     

氮沉降对杉木人工林生长及林下植被碳库的影响

在12年生的杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)人工林中开展5年的模拟氮沉降试验,氮沉降水平分别为NO(对照)、N1、N2、N3,N沉降量依次为0、60、120、240 kg·hm-2·a-1,研究氮沉降增加对林木胸径、树高生长及林下植被碳库的影响.在氮沉降试验的前3年,N0、N1、N2、N3处理样地林木平均胸径年增长率分别为3.52%、3.77%、4.32%和4.55%,表明胸径增长随氮沉降水平的增加而增加.各处理样地平均树高年增长率依次为9.95%、10.02%、9.34%和7.99%,说明中-高氮处理(N2、N3)抑制了树高的生长;在氮沉降试验的后2年,各处理样地林木平均胸径年增长率分别为3.65%、4.52%、2.46%和3.55%,树高年增长率分别为7.19%、8.28%、6.41%和6.33%,表明低氮处理(N1)促进了林木的生长,而中-高氮处理在一定程度上抑制了林木生长.各处理样地的林下植被碳储量由大到小的顺序为NO、N1、:N2、N3,与对照相比,N1、N2、N3处理使林下植被碳储量分别降低了0.164.、0.373和0.482 t·hm-2,平均每年减少C 0.041、0.093和0.120 t·hm-2,相当于N1、N2和N3处理使林下植被每年吸存的二氧化碳量减少了0.151、0.342和0.441kg·hm-2.     

川西亚高山不同森林类型土壤酶活性对短期凋落物输入量变化的响应

凋落物输入是生态系统物质循环和能量流动的重要环节,在维持亚高山森林的"自肥"机制及生态系统结构和功能等方面具有不可替代的作用.为进一步了解川西亚高山森林土壤物质循环过程,以该地区典型森林为对象,通过进行凋落物输入控制试验,研究3种森林类型(阔叶林、针阔混交林和针叶林)不同时期(添加时间)凋落物输入变化对土壤碳(C)、氮(N)和磷(P)分解相关的酶活性及其化学计量比的影响.结果显示:3种森林类型中凋落物输入对土壤酶活性的影响不显著,而不同林型和凋落物输入时间则显著影响了土壤酶活性.凋落物处理1.5年时期,在凋落物输入处理中,阔叶林的β-葡萄糖苷酶和纤维二糖水解酶的酶活性显著高于针阔混交林(2.69和2.73倍)和针叶林(1.87和1.47倍);而在凋落物去除处理中,针叶林中的酸性磷酸酶活性则显著大于阔叶林(1.72倍)与针阔混交林(1.66倍).相关性分析表明,土壤含水量以及C、N含量是影响酸性磷酸酶、β-葡萄糖苷酶和纤维二糖水解酶变化的主要因素,而多酚氧化酶和过氧化物酶主要受到土壤pH以及土壤硝态氮含量的影响.根据生态酶化学计量理论,本研究的土壤酶化学计量碳氮比(C:NEEA)均低于全球平均值,而土壤酶化学计量碳磷比(C:PEEA)和土壤酶化学计量氮磷比(N:PEEA)均高于全球平均值,表明该区域N转化酶活性较高,处于相对N限制的区域.本研究表明在养分循环较慢的川西亚高山地区,短期凋落物的输入对土壤酶活性的影响较为缓慢,但不同凋落物组成(林型)对土壤酶活性的影响不同,关于土壤酶活性对于凋落物输入的响应还有待长期研究.(图4表3参49)     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.